Special Education Management
LECTURE 1: NOTES
1.0 Introduction
Students with some types of disabilities, such as those with sensory impairment and emotional and behavioural disorders, normally require specialised schooling because their condition restricts them from learning effectively compared to students without disabilities or other forms of disabilities. The introductory lecture exposes you to the concept of special education.
In addition, the concept of disability and the types of disabilities that make students require special educational needs are elucidated. Various ways of helping students with disabilities in school contexts are explained.
1.1 Objectives
Upon successful completion of this lecture, a student should be able to:
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1.2 The Concept of Special Education
Special education (SE) is used synonymously with an exceptional education. Special Education is an umbrella term broadly used to identify the academic, physical, cognitive and social-emotional instruction offered to children with one or more disabilities.
Heward (2006) defined SE as the purposeful interventions designed to prevent, eliminate, or overcome the obstacles that might hinder an individual with disabilities from learning and full and active participation in school and society.
Special education aims at accommodating students with various disabilities such as behavioural and emotional disorders, cognitive or intellectual impairments, sensory impairments, mostly hearing and visual impairments.
It also includes educating students with speech and learning disabilities, to name a few and gifted and talented learners. Sometimes, SE is synonymous with special needs education and exceptional education concepts.
1.3 The Concept of Disability
How can you describe a disability? According to the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (United Nations, 2014), a disability is an evolving concept.
It results from the interaction between a person’s impairment and obstacles such as physical barriers and prevailing attitudes that prevent their participation in society. The more obstacles there are, the more disabled a person becomes.
Persons with disabilities have long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments such as blindness, deafness, impaired mobility, and developmental impairments. Some people may have more than one form of disability, if not most people, and will acquire a disability at some time in their life due to physical injury, disease or ageing.
Categories of disabilities
WHO (2000) described disability as an umbrella term covering impairment, activity limitations and participation restrictions.
An impairment means any loss or abnormality of a psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function that restrict an individual in executing a task or action. Activity limitations are difficulties an individual encounters in his or her involvement in life situations.
On the other hand, participation limitations are problems experienced by an individual in his or her involvement in life situations (handicap). Special needs for students with disabilities can be categorised into four categories:
- Emotional and Behavioural Disorders (EBD)
Emotional and Behavioural Disorders (EBD) is an umbrella term. Several specific diagnoses fall into EBD, such as Psychiatric Disorder (Anxiety Disorder, Manic-Depressive Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Psychotic Disorder and Eating Disorders as anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder).
It also involves Behavioural Disabilities (Oppositional-Defiant Disorders, and conduct disorders such as Attachment Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Students with behavioural disabilities engage in disruptive classroom behaviour and/or harm themselves and others.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) characterised children and young people with EBDs as exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics: “An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or health factors; An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers;
Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances; A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; and a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems”.
Researches indicate that students with psychiatric disorders present a profound challenge in schools for several reasons: First, Students who struggle with these challenges often undergo treatment and may receive medication.
Medication can affect them in unexpected ways, and because medical information is confidential, teachers may be unaware of why students act the way they are.
This makes it difficult to respond appropriately to particular students’ behaviours. Second, schools are not hospitals, and teachers cannot be expected to treat or cure these disorders. Third, students suffering from these conditions may not meet academic and behavioural expectations.
In such cases, students need to receive special education interventions of some sort and may need to be moved into a special education classroom.
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What are the unique needs of students with EBD’s?
Students with EBD’s require unique needs to achieve in their learning as other students with and without disabilities. However, Landrum et al. (2003) state that “describing what special education for students with EBD presents a uniquely difficult challenge, given that students with EBD probably experience less school success than any other subgroup of students with or without disabilities“.
Students who suffer from Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, or EBD, often find it very difficult to control their behaviour and focus on their work in the classroom. EBD students also commonly lack the impulse control and emotional balance necessary to effectively handle social interactions with other students. In that regard, students with EBD require rewards when they achieve positive behaviours.
They also need to have mini-breaks and fair treatment for all. On top of that, they need to be offered incentives for academic successes and praise for their excellent efforts consistently.
- Cognition and learning difficulties
Cognition and learning difficulties are umbrella terms that emphasise a person’s difficulties to learn. Such a person may have particular difficulty learning to read, write, spell or manipulate numbers so that his or her performance in these areas is below-average. Students with specific learning difficulties include those with:
(a) Specific Learning Difficulties. These refer to a range of disorders in which one or more basic psychological processes involved in the comprehensive/usage of spoken or written language establishes an impairment in one’s ability to listen, think, read, write, spell and/or complete mathematical calculations. It includes conditions such as perceptual disabilities, dyslexia, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction and developmental aphasia
(b) Moderate Learning Difficulty (MLD) – numeracy and literacy, speech or language delay, low self-esteem or concentration or underdeveloped social skills.
(c) Severe Learning Difficulty (SLD) – significant intellectual or cognitive impairments. Mobility, communication, perception or coordination difficulties.
(d) Profound & Multiple Learning Difficulty (PMLD)
- Communication and interaction disorders
Communication and interaction disorders may include social interaction, social cognition, and pragmatics problems. A social communication disorder may occur within the context of other conditions, such as:
(a) Speech /Language impairment is defined as communication disorders that include stuttering, impaired articulation or language or voice impairment. These forms of impairment have an adverse effect on students’ academic performance.
(b) Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This is a developmental disability that significantly affects communication (verbal and non-verbal) and a person’s social interaction.
(c) Learning disabilities (LD),
(d) Language learning disabilities (LLD),
(e) Intellectual disabilities (ID),
(f) Developmental disabilities (DD),
(g) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and
(h) Traumatic brain injury (TBI).
- Physical and sensory disabilities
A physical disability is any type of physical condition that significantly impacts one or more of the major life activities. It limits a person’s physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina. Sensory impairments limit other facets of daily living, such as seeing hearing and touch. Students with sensory impairment include those with:
- Visual Impairment (VI)
- Hearing Impairment (HI)
- Multi-Sensory Impairment (MSI)
- Physical Disability (PD)
How to help students with special needs in schools?
- Maintain an organised classroom and limit distractions. Maintaining a healthy balance of structure and unstructured processes for students with special needs is essential. Schedule breaks throughout the day and seat students with special needs in an area of the classroom that limits distractions
- Use music and voice tone. When changing activity, use a short song to finish one task and move to another. Students with special needs respond well to varied voice inflexion and tone, so use a mixture of loud, soft, and whisper sounds. Use proper pronunciation that will help a child model the same principles.
- Break down instructions into smaller, manageable tasks. Students with special needs often have difficulty understanding long instructions at once. Use simple, concrete sentences when giving directions both in print and verbally. Ask special needs students to repeat the directions to demonstrate that they understand.
- Use multi-sensory strategies. Children learn in different ways. It is vital to prepare lessons as multi-sensory as possible. Students with learning disabilities might have difficulty in one area while excelling in another. For example, use visual, audio as well as tactile experiences.
- Give students with special needs opportunities for success. Children with learning disabilities often feel unconfident in most courses, so structuring lessons that lead to successful results is a way to motivate them.
These suggestions are ideal for classroom settings, but parents of students with special needs can also implement these principles. Helping children with learning disabilities both in and out of the classroom is the best way to help them succeed
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References
Hornby, G. (2014). Inclusive Special Education: Evidence-Based Practices for Children with Special Needs and Disabilities. In Inclusive Special Education. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1483-8
Landrum, T. J., Tankersley, M., & Kauffman, J. M. (2003). What is Special about Special Education for Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders? Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 148–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669030370030401
LECTURE 2 NOTES
2.0 Introduction
This lecture discusses special educational needs for students with disabilities in inclusive settings. It also exposes you to Inclusion and Mainstreaming concepts as applied in inclusive education. After that, the importance of learning management of special educational needs among student teachers is discussed.
2.1 Objectives
Upon successful completion of this lecture, a student should be able to:
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2.1 The concept of Inclusive Education
Inclusive education is a multifaceted concept that includes the celebration and value of difference and diversity, considering human rights, social justice, equity issues, the social model of disability and a socio-political model of education. It also includes the school transformation process and focuses on children’s educational entitlement and access (Hornby, 2014).
The main goal of inclusive education is to provide students with disabilities with educational access and opportunities to participate in society. Generally, Inclusive education means educating ALL students in age-appropriate general education classes in their neighbourhood schools, with high-quality instruction, interventions, and support so all students can succeed in the core curriculum. It is about how we develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs and activities so that all students learn and participate together.
An inclusive school should have a collaborative and respectful school culture where students with disabilities are presumed to be competent, develop positive social relationships with peers, and fully participate in the school community. All students attend and are welcomed by neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of life in a school.
Inclusive education is not only about input issues, such as access and those related to processes such as teacher training, but it involves a shift in underlying values and beliefs, along with precise approaches, positions, and solutions. A broad range of strategies at all levels are needed to realise the right of children with disabilities to inclusive education:
The literature on inclusive education has revealed four fundamental principles for putting inclusion philosophy into practice.
The following are the four fundamental principles for inclusion practice
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Children with and without disabilities learn together in an inclusive classroom
2.3. Inclusion
Inclusion is the state of being included. In inclusive education, it means that all people should be freely and openly accommodated without restrictions or limitations of any kind. People should feel that they belong, are engaged, and connected.
It is a universal human right whose aim is to embrace all people, irrespective of race, gender, disability or other attributes which can be perceived as different. Inclusion rejects special schools or classrooms to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities.
A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Schools should be designed so that all students with and without disabilities attend age-appropriate regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of life at the school. It is all about developing and designing our schools, classrooms, programs, and activities so that all students learn and participate together.
Benefits of Inclusion
Inclusive education seeks to provide a very constructive focal point for improving the education of children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). Inclusive education benefits several recipients, including children with disabilities, children without disabilities “normal”,
Families, and the general communities. Parents of children with SEN would like their children to be accepted by their peers, have friends, and live “normal” lives. This vision can become a reality for many children with disabilities in inclusive settings. Students taught in an inclusive setting are more likely to build a society accepting of differences and respect people from diverse backgrounds.
Benefits of Inclusion to learners with disabilities
An inclusion enables learners with disabilities to:
- Develop a positive understanding of themselves and others. When children attend classes that reflect the similarities and differences of people in the real world, they learn to appreciate diversity. Respect and understanding of children with disabilities grow when they play and learn with children of different abilities.
- Develop friendships with peers. Schools are important places for children to develop friendships and learn social skills. Children with and without disabilities learn with and from each other in inclusive classes. As they interact in inclusive settings, they learn critical academic skills. Children with and without disabilities are expected to learn to read, write and do the math. With higher expectations and good instruction, children with disabilities learn academic skills.
Researches indicate that when children with and without disabilities are included in the regular classroom, they learn and achieve more because they have:
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- Inclusion leads to lower suspension and dropout rates and increased employment rates among people with disabilities.Studies show that more time spent in a classroom is positively correlated with fewer absences from school, fewer referrals for disruptive behaviour, and better outcomes after high school in the areas of employment and independent living (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2006)
- It is a civil right and a socially just thing to do.Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act created and extended civil rights to people with disabilities. The section has provided opportunities for children and adults with disabilities in education, employment, and other settings. It also allows for reasonable accommodations such as special study areas and assistance as necessary for each student.
- Students with disabilities can also benefit academically in an inclusive setting. Of all the benefits of Inclusion, this one is perhaps most astounding. Many teachers and parents wonder whether students with disabilities would perform better academically in a classroom explicitly geared towards them. The teacher uses inclusion strategies to help students succeed academically in a well-designed inclusion classroom. Therefore, students encounter higher expectations from their peers and their teachers and the positive academic role models of their non-disabled classmates.
Benefits of Inclusion to learners without disabilities “normal students.”
- Inclusion also offers many advantages to students without disabilities, “Normal students” in an inclusive classroom. These students can also gain strong friendships that would have been impossible otherwise and appreciation and acceptance for different people. The idea of “diversity,” rather than remaining an empty catchword, takes shape tangibly in the inclusive classroom. They can learn more realistic and accurate views about children with disabilities and develop positive attitudes towards those different from them.
- Non-disabled students learn how to work with students who have varying skills and abilities, which will help them in their futures. They can also learn how to help others achieve academic success and learn complex information, a skill that can only improve their academic performance and their ability to succeed later in life. More importantly, students without disabilities can learn from others who successfully achieve despite their challenges. Both slow and gifted learners can benefit from Inclusion.
Benefits of Inclusion to families of students with disabilities
- Families of children with disabilities will feel less isolated from the rest of the community. They will benefit from being integrated more easily into the school’s society. They will develop relationships with other families who can support them. Such families can enjoy having their children at home during their school years without the need to send them away to special schools or hostels.
- In addition, they can develop relationships with families with children with disabilities. Moreover, parents can also teach their children about individual differences and the need to accept different ones.
Benefits of Inclusion to other community members
- Communities can economise by providing one program for all children
- People with disabilities who have developed their full potential through effective education will no longer be a burden to society
- Communities will learn to appreciate diversity in their midst
2.4. Inclusive Education Settings
It is imperative to note that inclusive education differs from separate education in special schools. It is where all children, regardless of differences, have the opportunity to learn with and from each other. In inclusive settings, differences are valued, but the focus is on common similarities to all children.
Inclusion should not be the sole responsibility of the specific class teacher. Everybody should be involved and take responsibility. However teachers make all the difference. Training for teachers should be sustained and ongoing. It should focus on attitudinal change.
They need to understand and accommodate the concept of learner diversity. They also need to be trained to be innovative and flexible regarding multi-level curriculum instruction and classroom management styles. A school-based support team should develop strategies for the whole school to meet the needs of learners with special educational needs.
This team should also be a resource for teachers experiencing classroom problems. All children benefit when all students are made to feel they belong, and education is sensitive and responsive to individual differences. Inclusive education is one of the most effective ways to promote an inclusive and tolerant society.
2.5. The Inclusive Classroom
An inclusive classroom is staffed with a regular education teacher and a special education teacher. Students include those with and without disabilities. The teachers often co-teach to address the wide-ranging needs of their students.
Note that inclusive classrooms vary greatly. Some schools only educate students with mild disabilities in general education classrooms, while others maintain separate classrooms for students with moderate and severe disabilities. Each school has its vision of how to implement inclusive practices.
If you are specialised in inclusive education, here are eight tips to help you create an exciting and positive learning environment for your students.
- Organise student desks in groups: Students can work together on projects and activities, fostering interaction among disabled and non-disabled learners.
- Get to know your students: The more you know your students, the more you can adapt your teaching methods to their needs.
- Create a safe and welcoming environment: Let your classroom reflects diversity and Inclusion. Ensure that classroom is attractive and conducive to all students
- Set ground rules and stick with them: It is vital to establish strong expectations on the first day of school—rules for conduct help create a sense of order and establish an inclusive and safe learning environment.
- Work closely with your co-teacher: Co-teaching is teamwork and collaboration. It would be best to discuss how to execute the instruction and teaching relationships.
- Ensure Students Appreciate Individual Differences: From the beginning of the year, make sure that both children with and without special needs cultivate an environment that praises diversity and the differences we all have.
- Help Establish Short-Term Goals: Break larger tasks into more straightforward goals to instil both students with a sense of accomplishment, build morale, and raise productivity.
- Design a Multifaceted Curriculum: Develop multiple teaching methods for the same content to accommodate students of many learning types.
1.1.Special Needs for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive Education Settings
Special needs are also known as special educational needs. They are described as the educational requirements of any student who might need extra help because of a medical, emotional, or learning problem, including deafness, blindness, dyslexia, learning difficulties, and behavioural problems. Such students have special needs because they might need medicine, therapy, or extra help in school, which other students do not need or only need once in a while.
However, it is imperative to note that every person is an individual and students with special needs education are different from each other. Even if students have a ‘label’ attached to their particular unique needs, it does not mean that their needs will be the same as that of other students with the same ‘condition’. For example, wheelchairs or braces are special for students with physical disabilities.
Students with physical disabilities also need a special school bus that can accommodate them differently from students without disabilities. Students suffering from chronic illnesses such as epilepsy, diabetes, or cerebral palsy also have special needs.
They might need medicine or other help as they interact with other students in their daily activities. Again students with visual impairment (VI) might need a braille machine for writing braille and braille books as they cannot write as other students without VI.
Students with hearing impairment (HI) would have special needs services such as sign language interpreters or devices that could assist them with interacting both in the classroom and outside the classroom. Other students with various disabilities may require different special needs depending on the nature and type of a disability. In all types of disabilities, the difficulties can range from mild to profound, and many learners can have problems in more than one area of learning. Teachers in special and inclusive schools should consider looking for information in all areas that students might have difficulty.
1.2.Types of special educational needs
As explained earlier, special educational needs involve the special educational arrangements which are in place for children with disabilities.
A child has special educational needs if he or she has learning difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for him or her to learn than most other children and young people of about the same age. So special educational needs could apply to children or students who have:
- Learning difficulties – in acquiring basic skills in early years setting, school or college
- Social, emotional or mental health difficulties – making friends or relating to adults or behaving properly in early years setting, school or college
- Specific learning difficulty – with reading, writing, number work or understanding information
- Sensory or physical needs – such as hearing impairment, visual impairment or physical difficulties which might affect them in early years setting, school or college
- Communication problems – in expressing themselves or understanding what others are saying
- Medical or health conditions – which may slow down a child’s or young person’s progress and/or involves treatment that affects his or her education
The following are possible educational supports to students with special educational needs:
- Assistive technology
- Specialist equipment
- Special school transport arrangements
- School building adaptations where necessary
- Extended school year scheme
- Visiting teacher service for Deaf/Hard of Hearing children and children who are blind or who have a visual impairment
- Support for students with a significant special care need arising from a disability
- Early intervention classes for children with disabilities.
1.3. Mainstreaming
The term mainstreaming of children with disabilities means that schools put children with special needs into classrooms with their peers with no disabilities. This is done during specific times of the day based on their skills.
At other times, the special needs child may be studying in a resource room or “self-contained classroom.” In that environment, the student has access to more one-on-one time with special education teachers and aides.
Further elaboration shows that mainstreaming means nothing more than moving a child out of special education self-contained classrooms and pull-out programs and putting him/her in a regular classroom.
Regular classrooms are considered to be the mainstream.Mainstreaming and inclusions are two different academic programs for IEP (Individualized Education Program) students.
1.4. Mainstreaming Vs Inclusion
“Mainstreaming” and “inclusions” are two different academic programs. “Mainstreaming” refers to children with an individualised education plan (IEP) attending a regular classroom for their social and academic benefit.
They are expected to learn the same material as the rest of the class but with some modifications in the course and adjustments in the assessment. A mainstreamed child does not have any other help in the classroom except for the teacher. The support they get is in the form of modifications in the course. Contrary, Inclusion refers to children with an IEP attending a regular classroom for their social and academic benefit.
However, these children are not expected to learn the same material as the other class members. They have their own individualised material, and they are not expected to improve as per the class. They are basically “included” in the class to be with the students of their age and have the chance to get the same education.
In Inclusion, children do not always have disabilities. They are also students performing above their class level, also called “gifted students,” and students who speak the language in the classroom as their second language. The students in inclusion classrooms have a team supporting them.
The regular teacher is given tips on how to help the child with special needs. Specialists like speech therapists and physical therapists help the teacher understand the child’s needs. The teacher is advised to know how to handle technologies and equipment which assist a special needs child.
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1. How do you understand the concept of inclusive education?
2. Using relevant examples, discuss the statement that “every child has the right to be educated in the regular classroom.” 3. Describe four fundamental principles for inclusion practices in secondary school in Tanzania 4. Inclusive education in Tanzanian schools is unpractical. Discuss 5. Based on sound reasons, refute or concede the statement that “students with and without disabilities ‘normal students’ can best learn together in the regular classrooms and achieve more academic success and social skills. 6. Using vivid examples, differentiate mainstreaming from Inclusion |
LECTURE 3 NOTES
3.0 Introduction
Education inclusion is the practise or policy of ensuring equal access to educational opportunities and resources for persons who would otherwise be exempted or marginalised, such as those with disabilities and socially disadvantaged (Topping & Maloney, 2005). Around the world, inclusive education is gaining a special attention. One of the international agenda items for Education for All (EFA) is inclusive education.
Again, UNESCO’s main agenda has also become inclusive education, intending to ensure that no child is denied access to a high-quality education. Inclusive education is a creative and strategic educational approach to increasing educational access for all children, including those with disabilities.
However, managing educational Inclusion is unique from managing a school with no learners with special needs. Inclusive schools, like any other organization needs someone who will be responsible for every activity going on in the school environment. This person who makes sure that the teaching and learning process goes on smoothly.
For this to be fulfilled effectively the discussion on the concept of management is inevitable.This lecture discusses integrative Leadership, leadership types and forces, the school improvement cycle, resistance to change forces, and networking in Inclusion
3.1 The Meaning of Integrative Leadership
Integrative Leadership is an emerging leadership approach that fosters collective action across many types of boundaries so as to achieve a common good. It focuses on leadership development at all levels, from individual to global.
It draws on many different theories, tools and models. It harnesses diverse capacities, techniques, incentives, individuals or organisations in coordinated action for the public good.
Have you ever asked yourself, Why is it imperative to adopt integrative Leadership in an inclusive school?
scholars maintain that it is imperative to adopt an Integrative leadership to manage Inclusion in our schools because it is fundamental to making progress on significant and solvable school challenges and enhancing individual and school community capacity for positive change.
Multiple actors work outside formal hierarchies, with different focus areas and terminology, and across sectors and institutions; organisations take new forms, blending incentives and imperatives. However, this is hard to organise, hard to sustain, and hard to assess.
Again, integrative Leadership empowers change. The more we understand diverse techniques, processes, organisational forms and funding mechanisms, the more effective we will enhance individual and school community capacity for positive change. Since Integrative Leadership is everyone’s responsibility and opportunity, Individuals can learn skills and practice approaches and behaviour that foster collaborative action on complex problems.
3.2 The school Improvement Cycle
Leadership forces can be considered tools available to administrators, supervisors, and teachers to effect the necessary change to improve education. The forces are defined as the strength or energy applied to a situation in order to initiate or stop motion or change. Sergiovanni (1983) stated that “we know excellent schools when we experience them. In excellent schools, things ‘hang together’;
a sense of purpose rallies people to a common cause; work has meaning, and life is significant; teachers and students work together, with spirit and accomplishment are readily recognised and identified. However, to say excellent schools have high morale or have students who achieve high test scores or send more students to colleges misses the point. Excellence is all these and more”.
Based on Sergiovanni’s view, parents want complete education for their children regardless of their conditions, whether they have disabilities, learning difficulties, or no challenge in their learning. For that matter, Leadership is the one that makes schools have excellence. Leadership has several aspects that contribute uniquely to school competence and school excellence. These leadership attributes can be described metaphorically as administrators’ and teachers’ forces that affect schooling activities.
Sergiovanni (1983) proposed five forces in which a successful administrator must excel in order to provide an effective school environment. The first three components are foundational to a school’s operation and are mandatory. The following two items (Symbolic and Cultural) set schools apart from each other and make them exceptional. Later on, Coley (2006) added the spiritual force to the five forces given by Sergiovanni.
- The technical force. This is derived from sound management techniques. The technical school leader can develop efficient organisational structures and create an efficient environment for motivated and effective teachers. He /she assumes the role of management engineer. By emphasising such concepts as planning and time management, the school leader provides planning, organising, coordinating, and scheduling to the life of the school.
- The human force. This is derived from harnessing available social and interpersonal resources. The human leader is skilfully in harnessing the human resources present in the school and the community. He/she assumes a human engineer’s role. He/she supports teachers, encourages them, and provides growth opportunities to teachers and other staff in a school. The skilled human leader is adept at building and maintaining morale and using participatory decision-making processes.
- The educational force. This is derived from expert knowledge about matters of education and schooling. The educational leader or administrator assumes the role of the clinical practitioner, bringing expert professional knowledge and bearing as they relate to teaching effectiveness, educational programme development and clinical supervision. He/she is responsible for a quality academic environment. This includes curriculum development, staff development, diagnosing educational problems, providing supervision, and evaluation.
- The Symbolic force. This is derived from focusing the attention of others on matters of importance to the school. The symbolic leader assumes the role of a chief and emphasises selective attention (the modelling of significant goals and behaviours), and signals to others what is important and valuable to the school. This includes presiding over ceremonies and rituals, visiting classrooms, downplaying management concerns in favour of educational concerns, unified vision for the school through uses of words and actions, and spending visible time with staff and students. Purposing is of significant concern to the symbolic force. According to peter Vail (nd), purposing is described as “that continuous stream of actions by an organisation’ formal leader which has the effect of inducing clarity, consensus, and commitment regarding the organisation’s fundamental purposes. Students and teachers alike want to value the school and its Leadership, desire a sense of order and direction, and increase work motivation and commitment. Of less concern to symbolic force is the leader’s behavioural style. Instead, what the leader stands for and communicates to others is emphasised. The objective of the symbolic leader is the stirring of human consciousness, the integration and enhancing of meaning, the articulation of vital cultural strands that identify the substance of the school and linking of persons involved in the school’s activities to them.
- The Cultural force. The cultural school leader assumes the role of the high priest, seeking to define, strengthen, and articulate those enduring values, beliefs, and cultural strands that gives the school its unique identity. He/she builds a unique school culture that sustains the school’s distinctive values. He also gives a chance to new members to socialise into the school culture, tell them the school story and maintain or reinforce myths, traditions and beliefs.
- In addition, the cultural school leader articulates the school purpose and mission, explaining how things operate around the school, developing and displaying a system of symbols over time, and rewarding those who reflect the school culture. The net effect of the cultural force of Leadership is to bond together students, teachers, and others as believers in the school’s work.
- The spiritual force. Serving as God’s shepherd to the flock. Chapel services, staff devotions, spiritual atmosphere, growth and development of students and staff.
3.4. Resistance to Change Forces
It’s easy to get excited about making changes in an inclusive school when you’re the force behind the change, but not everyone may share your enthusiasm. Resistance to change can be described as reluctance to adapting to change when it is presented.
In an inclusive school, employees can be either overt or covert about their willingness to adapt to school changes. Employees can express their resistance publicly, silently or unknowingly resisting change through their language or general actions. Resistance to change can be individual or organisational.
- Individual resistance occurs whens employees resist change based on their unique perceptions, personalities, and needs. Things like job security, habit, and economic factors have a massive influence on individual resistance
- Organizational resistance is the tendency for an organization as a whole to resist change and want to maintain the status quo. schools that suffer from organizational resistance become inflexible and are unable to adapt to environmental or internal demands for change. Some of the signs that organizational resistance is in play include internal power struggles, poor decision-making processes, and presence of bureaucratic organizational structures.
Common resistance to changes in an inclusive school
(a) Mistrust and lack of confidence. When employees don’t trust or feel confident in the person making the change, their resistance to it can be a huge barrier. A lack of confidence in change-makers is the most overlooked cause of resistance to change in organizations such as inclusive schools.
Maurer’s three Levels of Resistance to Change include: I don’t get it, I don’t like it, and I don’t like you. That’s right — people may not resist the change itself, but rather the person making it. Of course, “you” does not always refer to the change-maker specifically. It could also be someone the change-maker represents, such as the head of school etc.
(b) Emotional Responses
Changing the status quo is difficult, and some people may have emotional reactions to anything that disrupts their routine. This is a natural and inevitable response. Brushing it off will only lead to stronger resistance. Use change management models that focus on emotional reactions to change, such as the Kübler-Ross Change Curve or Bridges Transition Model, to mitigate this common cause of resistance to change. Both models recognize that change can lead to feelings of loss and grief. As such, change-makers must be prepared to manage these emotions and move people towards acceptance of the change.
(c) Fear of Failure
People won’t support a change if they’re not confident in their abilities to adapt to it. When people feel threatened by their shortcomings (real or imagined), they protect themselves from failure by resisting the change. The ADKAR Model has two goals that address the fear of failure: knowledge and ability.
(d) Poor Communication
When you talk at people as opposed to with people, you’re bound to get pushback and resistance to change.
Start by making a change communication plan. Before you initiate change, you should have several communication actions planned, such as the announcement of the change, small group discussions, one-on-one meetings, and methods for gathering feedback.
When talking with employees about change, answer the questions, “What’s in it for me?” (WIIFM) and “What does it mean to me?” (WDIMTM). When you address individual concerns, you increase their engagement. People want to know how the change will impact them specifically and what they will need to do to implement and solidify the change.
Furthermore, providing continuous motivation throughout the change process is essential. Kotter’s 8-Step Change Theory highlights the importance of focusing on short-term wins in step six of the eight-step change process. When employees are recognized for their efforts, it builds their enthusiasm and desire to support the change.
Find a balance between creating a sense of urgency and allowing time to transition. Don’t force change too quickly – when you push too hard for a change to happen, it’s easy to get tunnel vision and neglect important elements of your change plan.
Start with a change implementation timeline. Map out every action and set deadlines so you have a general idea of how long the entire transformation will take. Often, designing the path between the current state and change adoption helps you identify additional steps needed to facilitate the transition.
3.5. Networking in Inclusion
LECTURE 4 NOTES
1.1.The concept of management
All business, political, cultural or social organisations are involved in management. The management helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose. It must be noted that there must be someone in charge of others to fulfil objectives effectively. Any in charge person works in collaboration with others and available resources. Management is a universal phenomenon that has been described differently by different authors.
Harold Koontz defines management as getting things done through people. Management refers to the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve the stated goals of an organisation or institution. Such administrative activities include setting the organisation’s strategy and coordinating the efforts of staff to accomplish these objectives through the application of available resources.
1.2.Management as a Process
As a process, management refers to a series of inter-related functions. Managers like a headmaster are involved in activities like planning, organising, controlling and the like. Managers accomplish stated objectives by using human beings and other available resources.
Resources are organisational assets including:
. People,
. Machinery,
. Raw materials,
. Information, skills,
. Financial capital.
In an inclusive setting, the leaders are involved in management processes daily to make sure that all activities are run smoothly.
1.3. Management is an Art
Think of any inclusive school that consists of students with and without disabilities. Each student behaves differently. Again the staff of the same school behave differently. The school manager must have the ability to manage all of them harmoniously. Management is an art because managing requires specific skills, which are personal possessions of managers.
Art is an application of knowledge and skill to achieve the desired results. It is the personal application of theoretical principles for achieving the best possible results.
Art has the following characters
. Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge; therefore, learning theory is not sufficient. It is imperative to know the practical application of theoretical principles. For example, the theory that gifted children should be accelerated is insufficient. The school manager must know when and how to accelerate such students.
- Personal Skill. Although the theoretical base may be the same for every artist, each has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why success and performance quality differs from one person to another and from one school to another. Think of differences in the same classroom. Although it is only one teacher, similar environment, performance among learners differ because of differences in personal learning skills among the learners. Each one has his own style and approach towards doing a job.
- Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. Management is also creative like any other art. It helpfully combines human and non-human resources to achieve the desired results.
- Perfection through practise: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly, inclusive school managers initially learn through the art of trial and error, but the application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in managing their schools. We shall learn these principles later in this course.
- Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishing pre-determined goals. Inclusive managers use various resources like men, money, material, machinery & methods to make sure that all students with disabilities and students with no disabilities learn and perform in high quality and standard.
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1.4.Management as a Science
Science is a systematic body of knowledge on a specific field of study that contains general facts which explain a phenomenon. Management as science is characterised by several scientific features, including:
. Universally Acceptance Principles. Management has fundamental principles which can be applied universally in all organisations, like the Principle of Unity of Command (one man, one boss) is ubiquitous in educational organisations. For example, inclusive schools have only one headmaster
. Experimentation and Observation: Management principles are based on scientific enquiry and observation and not only on the opinion of experts like Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments and the practical experiences of many managers. For example, it is observed that fair remuneration to personnel helps create a satisfied workforce. Again if teachers are well paid, students’ performance is as well enhanced
. Cause and effect relationship: This is true for management processes. For instance, a lack of balance between authority and responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. Similarly, if workers are given bonuses and fair wages, they will work hard
. Test of Validity and Predictability: The management principles can be tested for validity. For example, the principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons – one having a single boss and one having two bosses. The performance of the first person will be better than the second.
1.5. Management as a Profession
A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires specialised knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which a representative body regulates entry. The essentials of a profession are:
Specialised Knowledge – A profession must have a systematic body of knowledge that can be used to develop professionals.
Formal education and training. Many institutes and universities impart education and training for a profession. No one can practice a profession without going through a prescribed course.
Social Obligations – Profession is a source of livelihood, but professionals are primarily motivated by the desire to serve society. Their actions are influenced by social norms and values
Code of Conduct – Members of a profession have to abide by a code of conduct that contains specific rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and exceptional ethics. A representative association enforces a code of conduct to ensure self-discipline among its members. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished, and his membership can be withdrawn
Exercise
| 1. Using relevant examples, discuss the statement that “school management is both a science and an art.” 2. With the support of examples, explain the feature of school management as a science |
1.6.References
LECTURE 5 NOTES
Theories are accepted facts that provide a rational explanation of a phenomenon. Management theories explain facts about managerial issues and the way it should be implemented in different organizations including schools.
Management theories are expected to improve school performance like the teaching and learning process as well as raising student’s performance.
Dear students study the theories thoroughly and see how they are applied in inclusive schools. Generally, no single theory may be satisfactory for leading an inclusive school, but a combination of theories need to be used including Classical Management Theories, Neo-Classical Management Theories, Modern Management Theories as well as Contingency/Situational Management Theories
5.1 CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES
This is a theory of management that focuses on the productivity, output and efficiency of workers, rather than the behaviour that exist among them.
The theory assumes that workers experience only physical and economic needs. It does not take into account workers’ social needs or job satisfaction, but instead advocates a specialization of labour, centralized leadership and decision-making, and profit maximization
Again, the theory has a clear structure for management, its functions and operations. It sets well the division of labour that can make tasks easier and more efficient to accomplish, which can enhance productivity. Also insists on clear definition of employee roles and tasks with little left to guesswork
5.1.5 Limitations of the Classical Theory
When the theory is put into action, some organizations can get high production. However, some flaws that make this particular management model less than attractive including:
- This theory overlooks the importance of human relations and creativity.
- The theory views workers as machines, but fails to take into account what job satisfaction, employee input and morale can bring to the workplace.
- The reliance on prior experience and the ability to apply it almost solely to manufacturing settings is another drawback of this theory.
Generally, the theory fell out of favour after the rise of the human relations movement
This failure is as well applicable in our schools. Think of a school head that insists of productivity and workers’ efficiency rather than their needs.
A school head that do not care of your health, finance as well as social welfare. A manager who do not care about workers hardships but always demanding for high students’ performance. Let’s see what other theories believe
5.2 NEO-CLASSICAL THEORIES
Neo-classical theories deal with the human factor. Elton Mayo pioneered the human relations to improve levels of productivity and satisfaction. The neoclassical theory was an attempt tu incorporate the behavioral sciences into management thought in order to solve the problems caused by classical theory practices. This was based on the idea that the role of management is to use employees to get things done in organizations.
Rather than focus on production, structures, or technology, the neoclassical theory was concerned with the employee. Neoclassical theorists concentrated on answering questions related to the best way to motivate, structure, and support employees within the organization. Neo-classical approach consisted of human relations and human behavioural approaches
5.2.1 Human Relations Movement:
Human relations movement believes that the improvement of working conditions, lowering of hours of work, improvement of social relations of workers help in increasing productivity.
Mayo was the first person to advocate for the understanding of workers problems in the context of growth of science and technology. He wanted the management to understand the problems of workers and make efforts to redress them. His main contributions include:
1. Human Relations Approach:
He recognized the importance of human factor in management. He said that human beings are complex and influential input into organizational performance. The social and psychological needs of human beings cannot be ignored.
2. Non Economic Awards:
The assumption that, workers will work more if they are offered more monetary incentives.
3. Social Man:
Mayo said that man is basically motivated by social needs and obtains his sense of identity through relationships with others.
4. Organization as a Social System:
Mayo was of the opinion that informal relationships in the organization are more effective than formal relationships. People form informal groups so as to give their feelings and seek guidance for actions
5.2.2 Human Behavioural Approach
It covered wider aspects in inter-personal roles and responsibilities. The important aspects of human behavioural approach include:
- Motivation of employees for improving productivity,
- Organization as a social system,
- Leadership styles
- Communication for better understanding,
- Employee development/ upgrading
- One of the pioneers was Abraham Maslow.
Maslow’s Contributions
He gave a general theory of motivation known as Need Hierarchy Theory in his paper published in 1943. According to him:
- People have a wide range of needs which motivate them to work,
- Human needs can be classified into different categories,
- Human needs can be arranged into hierarchy,
- Human beings start satisfying their needs step by step.
- A satisfied need does not motivate human behaviour.
The classification of human needs by Maslow was widely appreciated. He classified the needs into Physiological needs, Safety needs, Social needs, esteem needs, as well as Self-fulfilment or self-actuation needs:
5.4 MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORIES
The Modern Period starts from 1960 to present. After 1960 management has been turning away from the extreme human relations ideas particularly regarding the direct relation between morale and productivity. Modern management thinking wishes equal emphasis on man and machine
Under modern management thought three streams of thinking have beers noticed since 1960 as follows:
1. Quantitative or Mathematical Approach
This is also sometimes called, ‘Operations Research” or “Management Science School’. The quantitative approach is solely reliant on statistics and data. The main feature of this school is the use of scientific techniques for providing quantitative base for managerial decisions. The exponents of this school view management as a system of logical process.
This approach suffers from drawbacks like:
- It does not give any consideration to human element
- In actual life executives have to take decisions quickly without waiting for full information to develop models.
- The mathematical tools help in decision making but decision making is only one part of managerial activities. Management has many other functions than decision-making.
This approach supposes that all variables to decision-making are measurable and inter-dependent. This assumption is not realistic.
Sometimes, the information available in the business for developing mathematical models are not up to date and may lead to wrong decision-making.
Harold Knootz. Also observes that “it is too hard to see mathematics as a separate approach to management theory. Mathematics is a tool rather than a school
2. Systems Approach
System approach is based on the generalization that everything is inter-related and inter-dependent. The systems approach takes the viewpoint that an organization like school is really an interconnected group of systems that all work together. For example the teachers must collaborate with the school guards, the academic officer must work together with school patron as well as matron, history department to work together with geography, students collaborates with all these etc. Think of a school as a machine
- Inputs: Material, information or data that goes into the machine (students attending school)
- Processes: Work that is done to the material, information or data while it’s in the machine (teaching and learning process)
- Outputs: The final product that comes out of the machine(the number of students who graduates)
Generally, a system is composed of related and dependent element which, when in interaction, forms a unitary whole.
3. Contingency or Situational Approach:
The contingency approach is the latest approach to the existing management approaches. During the 1970’s, contingency theory was developed by J.W. Lorsch and P.R. Lawrence
Management problems are different under different situations and require to be tackled as per the demand of the situation.
The behaviour of an organization is said to be contingent on forces of environment. “Hence, a contingency approach is an approach, where behaviour of one sub-unit is dependent on its environment and relationship to other units or sub-units that have some control over the sequences desired by that sub- unit.
This approach calls for an identification of the internal and external variables that critically influence organisational performance.
