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Transition Strategies in Special Education 11-

Lecture 11:Notes

11.0 Functional Skills for Learners with Special Needs

11.1 Introduction

In most cases persons with disabilities have been made to make transitions within education setting. In this lecture issues of education will be addressed as they are important, but also issues of job seeking, post basic education, and independent living will be addressed.

It cannot be underestimated that this topic will include learners without disabilities. As it is not clear as to how our young children learn job seeking skills. As you read this topic you will also understand why people fail to secure jobs of their wish in the global context, where place of work depend on global job skill requirements.

11.2 Functional skills

Functional skills are all those skills a student needs in order to live independently. The final goal of special education should be for our students to gain as much independence and autonomy as possible, whether their disability is emotional, intellectual, physical, or a combination of two or more (multiple) disabilities. “Self Determination” is the highest goal of special education for our students.

Skills are defined as functional as long as the outcome supports the student’s independence. For some students, those skills may be learning to feed themselves. For other students, it may be learning to use a bus, including reading a bus schedule.

We can separate the functional skills as: Life Skills, Academic Functional Skills, Community-Based Learning and Social Skills. These skills are also Known As: life skills

Examples: Mrs. Sombigute class is learning to count money as part of their functional math class, in order to prepare for the classes trip to buy fruits at the nearest market.

11.3 Life Skills

The most basic of functional skills are those skills that we usually acquire in the first few years of life: walking, self-feeding, self-toileting, making simple requests. Students with developmental disabilities (Autism Spectrum Disorders) and significant cognitive

or multiple disabilities often need to have these skills taught through breaking them down, modeling them and the use of Applied Behavior Analysis. It also requires that the teacher/practitioner do appropriate task analyses in order to teach the specific skills.

11.4 Functional Academic Skills

These skills are skills our students need to master before they can truly develop independence:

Self Care : Dressing, Tooth Brushing, Washing  Hands, Eating with Utensils and Bathing.

Housekeeping Skills: Washing tables, washing utensils, making a bed.

Living independently requires some skills which are considered academic, even if they do not lead to higher education or even completion of a regular diploma. Those skills include:

Math Skills – The functional math skills include telling time, counting and using money, balancing a check book, measurement and understanding volume. For higher functioning students, they will expand to vocationally oriented skills, such as making change or following a schedule.

Language Arts – Reading begins as simply as recognizing symbols, moving on to reading signs (stop, push) and moves on to reading directions. For many students with disabilities, they may need to have reading texts supported with tapes or adults reading. Still, in order to read a bus schedule, a sign in the bathroom, or directions, a student with disabilities gains independence by learning to read.

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   FORM FIVE                

    FORM SIX

Community-Based Instruction

The skills a student needs to succeed independently out in the community often have to be taught in the community. These skills include using public transportation, shopping, making choices in restaurants, crossing streets at crosswalks. Too often their parents, with the desire to protect their disabled children, over-function for their children and unknowingly stand in the way of giving their children the skills they need.

11.5 Teaching Functional Skills to Students with Disabilities

Social skills are usually modelled, but for many students with disabilities, they need to be carefully and consistently taught. In order to function in the community, students need to understand how to interact appropriately with different members of the community, not only peers and teachers.

Teaching functional skills will look very differently depending on the age and level of  function of the students.  With young students with disabilities, it is really a matter of creating structure for acquiring those skills not that long after their typical peers.  Still, success in those skills are a mile marker those students need to put behind.

In many cases parents over function for their children with disabilities, and it is often left to the special educator to encourage and coach the parent through self dressing, tooth brushing and the other skills required for independence.

For older students with more significant disabilities, it is incumbent on their teachers to address those functional needs in the present levels of their IEP’s and create programs that lead to success in the functional areas.

These are unquestionably essential for helping students with disabilities reach their full potential, for if they can’t care for their own teeth or dress themselves, they will be unable to live in a supervised group situation that will offer them the possibility of employment and their own highest level of independence.

Life Skills Needed

Life skills that need to be taught are going to depend somewhat on the particular situation. For instance, if the individual lives in a rural area and plans to stay there, they may not need to have skills in utilizing public transportation while those that live in large cities will find this to be a critical skill that they will be using frequently. There are, however, certain life skills that need to be taught to everyone.

Hygiene: The details of proper hygiene are going to need to be taught. This includes personal hygiene, maintenance of living quarters and may even include certain public mannerisms.

Finances: Dealing with money is something that everyone needs to learn and can be a particular challenge for those with intellectual disabilities that extend to the processing of math equations. These life skills may include the handling of cash, managing of bank accounts and bills as well as creating a feasible household budget and dealing with taxes.

Social skills: Though you might think that those with intellectual disabilities wouldn’t need any coaching on social skills because that isn’t part of the disability, you might consider how the very existence of the disability might impact their relationships.

For instance, those with limited financial skills may be easily taken advantage of when it comes to their finances. They may even need to feel comfortable explaining the disability to potential friends or mates so that they can be better understood.

11.6 Teaching Tips

Teaching functional living skills to students with disabilities can be a challenge and needs to be done in a way that they can understand and process. This means using common sense development and real life scenarios. Some of the tips below may help you to this end.

Role play:  The best way to develop life skills is to practice and repeat them. Role playing gives students a chance to act out scenarios that they may encounter in real life.

Set up a financial program: Help students to create a complete financial profile. Create scenarios that involve paying the mortgage or rent, utility bills and dealing with banks, by doing things like writing checks. Create a weekly plan with set limits that will allow students to practice developing a budget based on set incoming and outgoing funds.

Praise hygiene: Hygiene is a life skill that can be pretty easily taught to those with intellectual disabilities because it involves common sense. However, some issues may need to be addressed involving products and what they are used for and in what quantities they are used.

Build on existing skills: Intellectual disabilities often come with heightened skills in areas involving common sense. When you explain life skills to these students, keep the terms simple and use common sense scenarios to help them to understand what they need to do. Using large words may confuse the student and put unnecessary pressure on them. Remember you are trying to educate them in life skills, not academic skills at this point.

Create a life skills schedule: People with intellectual disabilities tend to thrive on schedules and repetition. They may have trouble creating a schedule, but once it’s done they probably won’t have any problem following it. These schedules should involve day to day activities and extend up to yearly activities, like filing taxes.

Create a resource list: There may be times when the individual is incapable of performing a task. They need to know where to turn when this happens. Help them to create a simple comprehensive list of resources so that they can get help meeting their needs when the time comes.

Remember when you are teaching functional living skills that you should focus on student’s strengths and interests rather than focusing on weaker areas, such as cognitive abilities. Base your lessons on those skills and you will have taught these types of students to appreciate their own skill set and worth rather than focusing on areas that they are lacking in.

11.8 The Essential Life Skills for Special Needs Children

Self-Care​: Create and rehearse daily routines such as personal daily hygiene, proper nutrition, exercise, getting dressed, table manners, dealing with common illnesses such as a cold, managing stress.

Pre-Vocational Skills​: Transition youth from being a student to being a contributing member of society by developing skills such as looking and applying for a job, interviewing, understanding job requirements.

Daily Living Skills: Develop practical living skills such as safety, finding information (internet), traveling (reading a map), home care (housecleaning), money skills (bank accounts), shopping.

Community-Based Instruction​: Focus on social skills and safety as students gain experience in different community environments.

Leisure and Recreational Skills​: Encourage and guide students to use their talents as they establish important job skills.

Functional Reading: Apply visual communication methods such as recognizing symbols, reading maps and signs, navigating the internet, etc., to help students make important day-to-day choices.

Functional Math​: Teach students to count money, tell time, manage personal budgets, measure and understand volume, etc., to improve real-life decision-making skills.

Work-Related Behaviors: Expose students to the workforce where they will have the opportunity to directly apply job-related behaviors and emphasize good work habits such as following directions, being punctual, understanding authority and working as a team.

Shopping Skills: Prepare students to apply skills in a variety of different business experiences from creating a shopping list to using money to purchase goods at the grocery store.

Cooking and Laundry Skills: Learn and apply more in-depth daily living skills and chores, such as cooking and laundry skills. This not only establishes a responsibility for routines and organizational skills but also sets a foundation for self-sufficiency. The major themes of these conventions and declarations are summarized below, with emphasis on the most vulnerable children and youth – those with disabilities.

1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child with particular reference to article 23

“A mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life in conditions which ensure dignity, promotes self reliance and facilitates the child’s active participation in the community” (Article 23(1)).

This article of the Convention specifies that children with disabilities have the right to special care with assistance provided to children and caregivers appropriate to the child’s condition. Assistance is to be provided free-of-charge and designed to provide effective access to education, training, health-care and rehabilitation services in order to promote the child’s social integration and individual development.

Standard Rules for the Equalization of Opportunities (1994)

Rule 6 recognizes the principle of equal primary, secondary and tertiary educational opportunities for children, youth and adults with disabilities in integrated settings. Further, it emphasizes the importance of early intervention and special attention for very young children and preschool children with disabilities.

Education for all: The World Education Forum in Dakar (2000)

The Forum advocated for the expansion of early childhood care and education, and the provision of free and compulsory education for all. Additional goals include promoting learning and skills for young people and adults, increasing adult literacy, achieving gender parity and gender equality, and enhancing educational quality.

Salamanca Statement on the Right to Education (2001)

The Salamanca Statement declares that every child has a fundamental right to education and that special educational needs arise from disabilities or learning difficulties. The Statement also asserts that all children should be accommodated with child-centred pedagogy.

In addition, the Statement emphasizes access to regular schooling with inclusive orientation for children with disabilities and the importance of early education to promote development and school-readiness.

UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)

“[…] Children with disabilities should have full enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis with other children, and recalling obligations to that end undertaken by States Parties to the Convention on the Rights of the Child […]” (Preamble).

“1. States Parties shall take all necessary measures to ensure the full enjoyment by children with disabilities of all human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis with other children. 2. In all actions concerning children with disabilities, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.

3. States Parties shall ensure that children with disabilities have the right to express their views freely on all matters affecting them, their views being given due weight in accordance with their age and maturity, on an equal basis with other children, and to be provided with disability and age-appropriate assistance to realize that right” (Article 7).

Article 30 of the Convention focuses on participation on an equal basis with others and underlines the importance for children with disabilities to play, participate in sports activities and cultural life. “Participation in cultural life,

recreation, leisure and sport: 1. States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to take part on an equal basis with others in cultural life […] to have the opportunity to develop and utilize their creative, artistic and intellectual potential, not only for their own benefit, but also for the enrichment of society; […]

to ensure that laws protecting intellectual property rights do not constitute an unreasonable or discriminatory barrier to access by persons with disabilities to cultural materials […]

to recognition and support of their specific cultural and linguistic identity, including sign languages and deaf culture. […] to participate on an equal basis with others in recreational, leisure and sporting activities […],

children with disabilities have equal access with other children to participate in play, recreation and leisure, and sporting activities, including those activities in the school system;” (Article 30).

Last modified: Wednesday, 9 February 2022, 10:53 AM

Transition Strategies in Special Education

Lecture 12:Notes

12.0 Family and community: Transition of Children with Disabilities

12.1 Introduction

In this topic issues that include the role of family in transition planning, and that of the community in the transition planning will be in focus. Children with disabilities involvement in transition planning makes them create self-determination. Therefore, in considering the transition planning promotion of self-determination will also be discussed.

12.2 Transition services

Transition services means a coordinated set of activities for a student with a disability that

  1. Is designed within an outcome-oriented process that promotes movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation.
  2. Is based upon the individual student’s needs, taking into account the student’s preferences and interests, and
  3. Includes: Instruction; Community experiences; Related Services; The development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives; and, If appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation.

Transition services for students with disabilities may be special education, if provided as specially designed instruction, or related services, if required to assist a student with a disability to benefit from special education.

12.2 Transition Planning as a Collaborative Effort

Transition Planning as a Collaborative Effort No one individual or agency can provide comprehensive transition planning for a student. Transition planning requires the collective effort and commitment of all key stakeholders in a student’s life.

As the transition planning team begins to form, it is critical that each member knows why they are serving on the team and their role in assisting the student to identify and plan for their future goals.

The success of the transition planning process hinges on the ability of each member to follow through on agreed-upon activities. The following describes possible team members and their roles.

The STUDENT

The student’s interests, desires and goal aspirations are a critical part of transition planning.

The FAMILY and Other Significant People in the Student’s Life

The families (parents, guardians) know the student the best and should have a major role in transition planning. They can serve as:

Case Managers:  who share information about the individual and coordinate efforts among the school personnel, home and adult providers.

Role Models:  who stress the importance of work and community living.

Risk Takers:  who are willing to let their child participate in inclusive community life.

Financial Planners who can access information about financial assistance programs and assist their child in making informed decisions that affect their child’s long-term interests.

Advocates who are informed about transition, program options, and community services and will offer opinions about what is most appropriate for their child.

Facilitators: who provide encouragement and opportunities to develop independent living skills.

EDUCATORS (Regular and Special Education)

Both regular and special educators will serve as facilitators of transition planning. Their roles may include:

  • Providing information about postsecondary education and vocational training opportunities.
  • Providing information about, and making referrals to adult service providers for families and students.
  • Providing functional curriculum experiences that teach students the skills necessary for adult life.
  • Developing appropriate work experiences, providing job leads, and helping students obtain jobs prior to graduation.
  • Advocating for the student and assisting them and their families to advocate for themselves.

SUPPORT STAFF

Support Staff, including guidance counselors, vocational educators, transition specialists, and speech and language pathologists can assist in helping students identify their strengths and needs and offer programming strategies/accommodations to help meet those needs.

EMPLOYERS

While it may be unrealistic to assume that an employer can attend all IEP meetings for students, they can help by providing input to the school, student and family regarding what qualifications and attributes they look for in potential employees. They can provide information about their companies, and any positions they may have available.

Most importantly, employers have established a strong network among themselves, and can serve as advocates for other businesses in the community to become involved in community-based training options.

Team members need to ask themselves several questions as they prepare to focus on the student’s transition planning needs:

• What information can I provide?

• What predictions can I make?

• What questions can I raise for others to consider?

• What resources, services, supports, can I make available to assist in the implementation of the student’s transition plan?

Last modified: Wednesday, 9 February 2022, 10:55 AM

Transition Strategies in Special Education

Lecture 13:Notes

13.0 Transition planning for persons with cognitive disabilities

13.1 Introduction

In this topic the focus will be on designing the transition planning for individuals with cognitive disabilities. The aim is to create awareness to the student teachers on how to design transitions for the learners with cognitive disabilities.

Transitions occur throughout life and are faced by all young people as they progress, from childhood through puberty and adolescence to adulthood; from immaturity to maturity and from dependence to independence. In addition, some young people experience extra transitions as a result of other life events for example, bereavement, separation of parents, and being placed in care.

Transition Assessment in Planning for Students with Most Significant Cognitive Disabilities

Who are these students? These are students with most significant cognitive disabilities have limited communication skills, often limited mobility, Require direct supervision and assistance with life skills throughout their life span, and demonstrate unique strengths, skills, needs.

Who should be involved in the transition assessment? Student, IEP Team, Family, Community and Support Services

13.2 Transition specific to young people with intellectual disabilities

The nature of disability

Individuals with intellectual disabilities represent a heterogeneous group of people with a large array of abilities and diagnoses. This diversity arises as a marker of the severity of the intellectual disabilities which can be divided into mild, moderate, severe and profound. It is likely that an individual with more severe intellectual disabilities will encounter more barriers to accessing the same opportunities that are available to their peers without severe intellectual disabilities. In addition to this, individuals with intellectual disabilities are also more likely to have coexistent medical conditions than individuals’ without intellectual disabilities. There is an increased likelihood that individuals will have received a diagnosis of chronic illness such as epilepsy or mental health diagnoses. For example four out of ten young people with intellectual disabilities experience mental health problems during their adolescence. Comorbidity with intellectual disabilities could be (a) coincidental, (b) one condition leading to the other or (c) impairment leading to both the intellectual disability and the comorbid disorder. Conditions may also be overlapping with no links to their cause.

However, these additional difficulties are often not recognized until they get severe or not at all. ‘Diagnostic overshadowing’ is the tendency for clinicians/ professionals working with the young person to attribute symptoms or behaviours to their underlying cognitive deficits and to therefore underdiagnose the presence of comorbid psychopathology. It is highly important that there is accurate and complete diagnosis of comorbid psychiatric disorders as these can cause significant clinical impairment and the additional burden of illness on both the individual and their families.  Furthermore, the placement of the child or the adult in educational or community settings respectively can be jeopardized by these difficulties particularly during transition to adult services.

For young people with intellectual disabilities their experience of transition can be qualitatively quite different from that experienced by other people. People with intellectual disabilities are more likely to experience additional transitions in their lifetime such as the diagnosis of co-existent medical conditions. For example, epilepsy is eight times more common in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities than it is in the general population. This rises to 100 times more common in severe intellectual disabilities. People with intellectual disabilities are also more likely to be subject to adverse life experiences.

The literature review took an in-depth look at transition experiences of young people with intellectual disabilities and their families and identified many aspects of transition that may be different for this group of people.

TRANSITION DIFFERENCE
Leaving Home This may occur later in the life of someone with intellectual disabilities. Alternatively it may occur much earlier, with an increased likelihood of children with intellectual disabilities going into care or specialist units.
Managing money Young people with intellectual disabilities may not have had any experience of managing their own money.
Legal independence Some individuals with intellectual disabilities may not gain legal independence, despite reaching the age of majority, if they do not have mental capacity.
Independent social life People with intellectual disabilities face some barriers to establishing independent social lives, such as lack of access to transport or communication technology, adult surveillance, and lack of access to a peer group.
Finding employment Young people with intellectual disabilities are less likely to gain paid employment.

13.3 Risks and Safety

Individuals take risks every day. An individual’s perception of risk varies according to their abilities, understanding and own life experience. Perception of risk in turn has a large influence on risk taking behaviour.

In the context of young people with intellectual disabilities there may not have been adequate opportunity to develop the necessary skills required to minimise risk. This is the case with most young people who, because of their youth, are more likely to lack a lot of the life experiences that may relate to risk taking behaviour such as first sexual encounters.

Risks may relate to everyday activities, lifestyle choices or abuse at the hands of others.

Examples of the risks that are an inherent part of daily living include many things from shaving to travelling alone on public transport. Lifestyle choices, such as exercise and diet, pose the potential risk of developing health problems in the longer term.

With regard to abuse, it is an unfortunate reality that people with intellectual disabilities remain at increased risk of abuse at the hands of others. This may take many forms; the most common reported by people with intellectual disabilities in one study is that of bullying and verbal abuse at the hands of their peers. The experience of being bullied in turn leads to lowered self esteem and its consequences such as low mood.

Transition marks a time where an individual gains greater choice and autonomy as they become independent. This can be a source of great anxiety for parents and carers when deciding how best to manage risk in the future. There is a marked discrepancy between the risk perceived by young people with intellectual disabilities and that perceived by their carers/parents.

It is important to adopt an appropriate strategy to reduce risk for individuals in a way that does not restrict the individual’s autonomy or access to opportunities that are available to their peers. A large part of the process is to provide the relevant life skills training during the transition period.

Parents are also in a stage of transition as their child enters young adult life. There are major changes and challenges for parents as they adapt their role and promote their child’s growing independence and life choices. It can be difficult to find a good balance between the duty of a parent to protect their child and the own rights of young adults.

Parents are usually very involved in child and adolescent mental health services however parents generally tend to be less involved in adult mental health services. This can be complicated for young people with intellectual disabilities as parents can have a much greater role in protecting their child from risks from others including exploitation or manipulation due to their vulnerability.

It is important to be mindful of the institutional processes that may expose individuals to further risks, in particular health risks. Young people with intellectual disabilities often receive a poor quality of service such as the replacement of regular follow-up appointments with as-required appointment systems. They are also more likely to have their health problems either misdiagnosed or overlooked (Heslopp et al. 2002).

13.4 Identity and emotional wellbeing

The period of transition from adolescence into young adult life is a time when experiences of disability can have an impact on the construction of self-identity. In a study in Belfast about ‘Disability, Identity and Transitions to Young Adult Life’ aimed to explore the transitional and early adult life experiences of young learning disabled adults,

young people’s perceptions of disability, impairment and self-identity were shown to be often related to post-school experiences and use of services. Enabling attitudes and approaches from family members, peers and professionals can help to buffer disabling experiences and support young people to develop positive self-esteem.

However, lack of access to information about impairment and disability rights, inappropriate post-school placements and limited opportunities for peer support can have a negative impact on the emotional wellbeing of disabled young people and those with intellectual disabilities. Many of the people in the study raised issues relating to low self-esteem and depression or anxiety often linked to experiences of disability, social exclusion and familial issues.

However, few had the opportunity to address their emotional needs in a safe and supportive context. It is important to adequately address the emotional wellbeing of disabled young people and recommendations that were made in the Belfast study included:

  1. Targeted public health services aimed at promoting the emotional wellbeing of disabled young people
  2. Inclusion of identity-related needs and emotional wellbeing in health and social care services, including opportunities to explore experiences of impairment and disability. Social workers could play a greater role in meeting these needs of disabled young people in transition as part of their key worker role
  3. Opportunities in schools and further education, training and employment programmes to address issues of self-confidence, identity and self-esteem
  4. Recognition of the impact of discrimination and abuse on the emotional wellbeing of young disabled people in transition and provision of therapeutic services to address related needs
  5. Peer support and advocacy for young disabled people to challenge disabling encounters and assert their rights in varying contexts
  6. Increased opportunities for affirmation and participation to build the resilience and capacity of young disabled people to exercise their rights and make a valued contribution to society

13.5 Transition services

The need for specifically designed programmes of care for facilitating the smooth transition from paediatric to adult care has been identified internationally, nationally and locally.

Transition is a multifaceted process, which includes the event of transfer and attends to the medical, psychosocial and educational/vocational needs of such young people and the needs of their parents.

Problems with transition services

  • Many of youngsters had left school without a transition plan
  • Young people to have a little or no involvement in the planning for their future
  • Lack of planning led to uncertainty and stress for some families
  • The quality of transition planning varies widely; in some cases it is ad hoc, confused and uncoordinated
  • The topics covered in transition planning are often quite different from those identified as important by families
  • For many young people, key issues (e.g. transfer to adult health or social services) had still not been addressed by the time they left school
  • Whether or not youngsters had received transition planning made little difference to what happened to them after leaving school
  • There were few post-school options available to young people particularly in relation to housing and employment
  • There was a lack of easily accessible information for parents and young people about what future possibilities might be
  • Concerns raised by the young people and their families which inhibited greater independence focused on personal safety and risk, money matters (including benefits) and Transport

13.6 Key elements for an effective transition

Key elements for an effective transition from a service delivery perspective were set out by Viner (Viner 1999). These were:

A policy on timing transfer

While there is a need for flexibility with regard to the time at which a young person should be transferred into adult services, it is useful to have a target transfer age. This is helpful not only for the commissioning of services but also for the young person themselves to be able to have reasonable expectations with regard to the process of transition. The target age may be chronological or based upon other transitional events, possibly leaving full time education.

A preparation period and education programme on identification of a necessary skill set to enable the young person to function in the adult clinic.

Clearly young people should not be transferred to adult services if they do not have the ability to function within an adult setting. For this reason it is necessary for preparation work to be undertaken. In the context of some physical disabilities, this might include their ability to manage their own physical ailments e.g. by being able to take responsibility for their own medications.

Coordinated transfer process

This would require clearly identified professionals who can identify the various strands of a young person’s health and social needs and co-ordinate their access to the appropriate adult facilities. This may include introducing them to the clinicians/professionals concerned.

An interested and capable adult service: This is a key part of the transition process and requires active participation from the adult services for the transition to be successful

Administrative support: Institutional and management support must be assured at both ends of the transition chain. Informal arrangements, though quick and easy to set up in the short term, are often prone to failure

Primary care involvement Additional elements include:

Case ascertainment: A large majority of young people with intellectual disabilities are identified during their childhood via the education systems. However a minority of cases may not be identified by the usual means.

Ongoing evaluation of transition arrangements: transition services need to review their practices regularly in order to be sensitive to the changing needs of the population of young people with intellectual disabilities and adapt their services regularly. Bridging the Divide at Transition” (Heslopp et al 2002) identified elements that contribute to a good transition experience as perceived by young people with intellectual disabilities and their carers.

Communication:  which is open, honest and respectful between agencies, and between agencies and families; independent advocacy for young people.

Coordination: effective inter-agency working; joint training initiatives; joint assessment procedures and a cohesive strategic approach to service provision.

Comprehensiveness: an effective transition plan for all young people; appropriate race and disability equality training for all staff; expectation that young people with learning difficulties will have access to the same opportunities to realise their aspirations as their peers.

Continuity: key workers to support individual youngsters and their families throughout the transition process; a seamless transition from children’s to adult services; a range of options for young people to move into and between.

Choice: more and better involvement of young people and their families in the transition process; access to appropriate information on potential options; development of a range of local post-school alternatives in housing and employment.

13.7 Models of transition

The most favoured model of transition service adopted by most of the literature mentioned so far is that of a ‘seamless transition service’. It is important to note at this stage that other transition models also exist. The Department of Health’s good practice guide ‘Transition:

getting it right for young people (2006) states that the most prevalent model for transition services is ‘Transfer’, whereby children’s care is transferred to the most appropriate adult service when they come of age. The document also provides brief descriptions of some of the other models that have been described in the literature

  • A dedicated follow-up service
  • A seamless clinic
  • Lifelong follow-up within the paediatric setting
  • A generic transition team within a children’s hospital
  • Generic transition co-ordinators for larger geographical areas
Models of transition explained.
Model Description Pros Cons
Dedicated follow-up service Service provided within the adult setting without a combined paediatric-adult clinic and with no direct input or continuity from paediatric services. Simplest model. Requires nurse specialists to help young people attend adult clinics and arrange meetings with paediatric services. Lacks continuity.
Seamless clinic A clinic which begins in childhood or adolescence and continues into adulthood, with both child and adult professionals providing ongoing care as appropriate. Duration of Joint Care can vary from individual to individual. Allows access to experts in both paediatric and appropriate adult specialties. Enables professionals to learn from one another. Allows some continuity of care. Requires resources including additional admin and clinic time. Geographical constraints may limit the availability of such a service.
Lifelong follow-up within the paediatric setting The default model often adopted by disability services, for example with cerebral palsy, Duchenne musculardystrophy or Down’s Syndrome. Ensures continuity of care. May encounter difficulties gaining expertise in more traditionally adult issues such as vocational, employment, benefits, independent living skills, contraception.
Generic transition team within a children’s hospital It involves having 1-2 dedicated nurse specialists who can ensure that all young people in the different specialities go through appropriate transitions. Requires nurse specialistsvery sensitive to population demands.
Generic transition co-ordinators for larger geographical areas Developed by the Department of Health in New South Wales, Australia, to cover a wider area. This model may be appropriate for conditions which are relatively rare, or for co-ordinating links between Children’s Hospitals and local General Hospitals. Good approach where large geographical areas need to be covered or where a condition is relatively rare.

13.8 Strategies for success

The first step in creating transition services for students with intellectual disabilities in college and community settings is to create an interdisciplinary committee representing each of the major players or organizations involved, including the local school system, students and their families,

college or university personnel, local and state rehabilitation personnel, state developmental disabilities personnel, adult service providers, employers, and representatives from local One-Stop Career Centers (Grigal, Neubert, & Moon, 2002). This committee must have a shared vision of the services that will be created and an understanding of the activities that are needed to make them a reality.

Committee members should conduct a needs assessment of current student services and community partnerships, determine the scope and focus of services, and familiarize themselves with the resources, strategies, and models of postsecondary transition services available in the literature and on the Internet.

Often those interested in developing postsecondary transition services mistakenly believe that simply changing the location of services from a high school setting to a college setting is sufficient to improve student outcomes. While location is one of the factors that promote change

, it is certainly not the most important. School systems must approach the development and implementation of postsecondary transition services first and foremost from a change standpoint by asking, “What do students need that they are currently not receiving in high school?”

Then, and only then, should they ask, “Where is the best location to provide those services?” In some cases the answer may be a college, but not in all cases. It is essential that those embarking on this process continually ask themselves, “What will students be doing differently in this setting than they did in high school?“

This model requires changes at the systems level and the student level. At the systems level, those who are trying to expand or promote services in postsecondary settings need to:

  • Engage administrative support for collaborating with outside agencies and organizations;
  • Develop mutually beneficial partnerships (e.g., determine how colleges can benefit from student enrollment and how local employers can be assisted with their hiring needs);
  • Understand the differences between the rights and responsibilities of students in high school and those in college, and the legislation that supports those rights;
  • Cross-train staff in the areas of teaching, job development, marketing, time management, scheduling, travel training, and counseling in order to deal with the needs of the various players in various environments;
  • Ensure the establishment of institutional mechanisms that will maintain the integrity of the program;
  • Base the location of services on identified students’ needs rather than on convenience or preconceived ideas of “what a college program should look like;”
  • Consider availability of resources such as transportation and proximity of available colleges and employment options;
  • Assess the impact of community and culture in the geographic area (rural vs. urban) including factors such as poverty, crime, racial issues, and safety;
  • Increase the flexibility of service provision to mirror a college schedule of activities; and
  • Engage in program evaluation activities to document the process and outcomes of students’ transition
  • services.

At the student level, those trying to expand or promote services in postsecondary settings need to:

  • Commit to a person-centered planning process to identify student goals and support needs;
  • Prepare students to successfully access college coursework by building both academic and functional skills in high school from ages 14-18;
  • Increase expectations of student self-determination and independence;
  • Focus on student ability to self-advocate and articulate support needs in college, community, and employment settings;
  • Connect college coursework to current or future employment and engage students in paid integrated community employment prior to graduation;
  • Engage students in all aspects of accessing college coursework (e.g., reviewing the class schedules, participating in the registration process, paying tuition or applying for tuition waivers, and asking for accommodations from professors) so they gain skills in accessing postsecondary education; and
  • Help students and their families make informed choices, including the choice of adult service providers that value and promote integrated experiences.

Expanding postsecondary opportunities for students with intellectual disabilities is an exciting trend, one that has the potential to impact not only special education, but higher education as well. Yet it is important to move toward creating these options while holding fast to the tenets that make transition services effective:

individualized, student-centered planning; integrated community experiences; interagency collaboration; and an outcome-oriented process. Outcomes are key to the success of this expansion. With the current educational climate of high-stakes testing and increased accountability, it is vital to demonstrate that transition services in postsecondary settings are effective.

To do so there must be continued efforts to gauge the impact of such services via frequent and meaningful evaluation of student progress and outcomes.

Last modified: Wednesday, 9 February 2022, 10:59 AM

Lecture 14:Notes

14.0 Transition planning for persons with sensory impairments

The topic is focusing on supporting individuals with sensory impairment in improving their life. Issues in focus will be who are individuals with sensory impairments, characteristics of persons with sensory impairment, how to plan, implement and evaluate their transition strategies. The role of the community in supporting persons with sensory impairments will be in focus.

14.1 Introduction

What is sensory impairment?

Sensory impairment is when one of your senses; sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste and spatial awareness, is no longer normal. Examples – If you wear glasses you have a sight impairment, if you find it hard to hear or have a hearing aid then you have a hearing impairment.  A person does not have to have full loss of a sense to be sensory impaired.

What is dual sensory impairment?

It is the combination of both hearing and sight impairment. It is not necessarily a total loss of both senses – indeed the majority of dual sensory impaired people do have some degree of sight and/or hearing.

Those with a less severe degree of both sight and hearing impairment may also be referred to as having a dual sensory impairment or loss. The words dual sensory impaired and deafblind are generally accepted as inter-changeable words.

When a person has difficulties seeing and hearing then the person can be termed deafblind. Although it is more common to refer to someone as being deafblind if there combined sight and hearing loss which causes difficulties for them with communication, mobility and access to information.

The combination of the two sensory impairments intensify the impact of each other, which  usually means that  a deafblind person will have difficulty, or find it impossible, to utilise and benefit fully from services for deaf people or services for blind people. Meeting the needs of deafblind people therefore requires a separate approach.

Deafblindness is a unique and extremely complex disability that often requires specialist communication methods and and systems being introduced to the person and those around them to enable communication to take place.

Deafblindness has adverse effects on all areas of development, in particular the language acquisition process, conceptual development, motor development, behaviour and personality of a person.

People who are deafblind can generally be separated into two groups:

  Congenital Deafblindness – People who were born with a hearing and vision       impairment.

This category may also include individuals who are born hearing – sighted, but who become deafblind through accident or illness within the first months of their lives. The important factor being that they become deafblind before they had the opportunity to gain formal language skills.

Acquired Deafblindness  – People who develop deafblindness later in life.

Three combinations are possible:

a)  Individuals who are born blind and later develop a hearing impairment.

b)  Individuals who are born deaf and later develop visual impairment.

c)  Individuals who are born sighted and hearing, but later develop a vision and hearing impairment.

Every deafblind person is an individual and may not fit neatly into any of the above categories, or use the suggested means of communication. Their situation may be complicated by the existence of other factors such as physical and/or learning disabilities.

A hearing loss, visual impairment, or combination of hearing loss and visual impairment of any type or degree potentially interferes with typical methods of interacting and learning.  Sensory impairments include the deaf or hard of hearing, visual impairment, and deafblind.

The low-prevalence nature of sensory impairments has resulted in misunderstanding, low expectations, and a lack of knowledge about evidence-based practices simply because education personnel have lacked familiarity with how these students learn. Educational research on students with sensory impairments is difficult to conduct. The population is geographically dispersed, making it difficult to identify an adequate group of study participants without considerable expense.

Participants who are identified are often extremely heterogeneous and exhibit a range of diagnoses, functioning levels, and additional disabilities. Specialized schools, once the greatest source of research samples, no longer offer homogeneous populations and special curricula.

14.2 Deaf or Hard of Hearing

The term hearing impairment has often been used as legislative terminology to refer to the primary disability category for students who receive services through an individualized education program (IEP) for a hearing loss. However, professionals in the field and individuals with hearing loss have preferred to use the terms deaf or hard of hearing.

It is important to recognize that the population of students who are deaf or hard of hearing has been found to differ from the general student population as well as from other students with disabilities across a wide variety of variables.

In addition to typical factors that research has discovered influence the outcomes for hearing children and youth (e.g., intelligence, socioeconomic status of the family, ethnicity, community resources, quality of the  educational program), an array of additional factors have also been found to affect the development of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Examples include

(a) degree of hearing loss;

(b) type of hearing loss;

(c) when hearing loss occurred;

(d) when the hearing loss was identified;

(e) whether early intervention services were provided;

(f) the quality and quantity of any early intervention services;

(g) use/benefit from hearing assistive technology (i.e., hearing aids, cochlear implants, frequency modulation (FM) systems, or communication boards);

(h) home language of the family (i.e., Sign Language , spoken English, and other spoken languages);

(i) family attitude toward hearing loss;

(j) any additional disabilities;

(k) quality of home intervention and preschool services;

(l) cultural identity (i.e., deaf, hearing, or hard of hearing and the interaction with other aspects, such as ethnicity, language, and religion);

(m) primary mode of communication preferred (Sign language, spoken language).

Where educational services are provided:

  • a general education classroom with pull-out services from a teacher of students who are deaf or hard of hearing,
  • a general education classroom with interpreter and/or note-taker services,
  • a general education classroom in which part of the day is spent in a resource room,
  • a self-contained classroom for students who are deaf or hard of hearing in a general education school,
  • a general education classroom that is co-taught by a general education teacher and a teacher of students who are deaf or hard of hearing, or
  • a special day or residential school program for students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Given that the educational outcomes for students who are deaf or hard of hearing have been as varied as the population itself, the determination of appropriate services must be made on an individual basis, taking into consideration the factors noted above and the summary of the research literature that follows.

13.3 Administration

Most professionals, including general education and special education administrators, have been found to be hearing and to have limited experience or training in working with students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

As a result, they may not understand that a hearing loss of any degree or type affects the quantity and the quality of interactions with others, which in turn may adversely impact language and academic, social, emotional, and career development. To help make decisions that are in the best interests of students who are deaf or hard of hearing and their families:

  • know the potential impact of a hearing loss and the effects on a child’s language, academic, cognitive, and social-emotional development as well as the impact on the family;
  • learn about the specific cultural and linguistic needs of students who are deaf or hard of hearing;
  • study the specific educational needs of students with hearing loss and additional disabilities;
  • respect the preferences of parents/caregivers regarding placement, and, simultaneously, for students who are deaf or hard of hearing, administrators should recognize that any one of the alternatives on the continuum of placements may constitute a least restrictive environment;
  • have a system in place for monitoring students who are deaf or hard of hearing and delayed in developing communication and/or at risk for academic failure;
  • Teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing provide services via a variety of models (e.g., direct service to students, collaboration with general educators, co-teaching, consulting with families) in an assortment of settings (e.g., general education classrooms, specialized schools for students who are deaf or hard of hearing, resource rooms, self-contained classrooms, homes) with children and youth ranging in age from 0 to 21.

14.4 Assessment

Conducting educational assessments of students who are deaf or hard of hearing can be challenging for several reasons:

(a) Students who are deaf or hard of hearing sometimes master the academic content; however, their ability to demonstrate their knowledge may be compromised because of communication, language, reading, and writing delays.

(b) norm-referenced tests may cause problems for students who are deaf or hard of hearing because tests require reading ability for assessing skills other than reading, and test scores may reflect reading skill deficits rather than the student’s specific content knowledge. (c) it has been consistently reported that between 25 to 50% of students who have a hearing loss also have an additional disability as well as the often-reported lack of language ability, attention problems, retention difficulties, and delayed academic skills, making it difficult to gather disability specific data.

(d) there have not been enough professionals who have the training and experience to assess students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Another factor professionals should consider when conducting assessments with students who are deaf or hard of hearing is systematic error or bias. Specifically, bias can lead to inaccurate assessment results that produce poor decision making. Four common examples of systematic error with students who are deaf or hard of hearing that can limit the validity of a test are:

  • the directions of an assessment are orally read to students who use sign as their primary mode of communication;
  • students who are deaf or hard of hearing and use sign are required to provide oral responses;
  • students who do not write well are required to demonstrate knowledge of specific content on an essay examination; and
  • test items that are based on the ability to hear, such as matching words containing similar sounds, are included in the assessment

Professionals should be knowledgeable about the differences between the terms accommodations and modifications. Accommodations (i.e., changes that help a student work around a disability and gain access to content) enable students with disabilities to perform in ways that would not be otherwise possible. Modifications change what students are expected to do during the assessment.

As a result, with modifications, students are not evaluated on the same academic standards as their peers; consequently, the test norms cannot be used for comparative purposes. Professionals should adhere to the standardized test procedures when administering assessments. Any accommodations or modifications undertaken should be documented.

Professionals working with students who use sign as their primary mode of communication and who are not fluent in that language or system themselves may require the services of an educational interpreter.

Professionals should be certain that the educational interpreter is skilled in the sign language or system the student uses to communicate, is familiar with the assessment process and instrument, and understands the importance of confidentiality. Finally, whenever possible, professionals should try to use a combination of procedures and instruments and avoid relying on a single test or assessment.

14.5 Assistive Technology

Students who are deaf or hard of hearing use an array of hearing assistive technology to access sound. Examples include: cochlear implants (CI); programmable digital hearing aids; bone-anchored hearing aids (BAHA); contralateral-routing-of-signal (CROS) hearing aids; tactile communication devices; personally worn, frequency-modulated (FM) amplification systems; classroom amplification systems; and accompanying peripherals such as microphones, ear molds, and chargers.

Professionals’ knowledge of the use and maintenance of the equipment is important to the academic success of this population of students In addition, with the interest in and success of cochlear implants, postimplant therapy has become an increasingly important area of expertise for teachers working with students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Age at implant and consistency of device use are two factors shown to influence outcomes for cochlear implants. However, studies have found that it is wrong to assume that, once implanted, students are able to hear like the typical hearing person. Like other equipment, cochlear implants require training for the students to use and preparation on the part of teachers to help students use these effectively.

Assistive technology services may also include the use of sign language interpreters, tutors, and/or note takers. Research has supported the benefits of having professionals teach students how to (a) use support services, (b) self-advocate about technology and support service issues, and (c) troubleshoot technology problems.

14.6 Communication

Approximately 95% of children who are deaf or hard of hearing are born to hearing parents who have little or no prior knowledge or experience with how to communicate effectively with a  child who has a hearing loss.

Without making adaptations, such as moving into the child’s visual space, using hearing assistive technology, or using sign, most children with a hearing loss experience significant reductions in communicative interactions. This may cause delays in the development of language, which in turn may adversely impact academic, social, emotional, and career development.

To promote communication and language development, three general approaches have been commonly used:

(a) oral methods—use of hearing assistive technology, such as cochlear implants and hearing aids, along with training to learn to use residual hearing and to speech read;

(b) manual methods—the use of Sign Language, a visual-gestural language that has its own grammar and syntax; and

(c) simultaneous communication methods—signs are produced in the same order as spoken words and at the same time as the words are spoken.

14.7 Early Identification and Early Intervention

Newborn hearing screening has led to increased numbers of children identified with a hearing loss before they leave the hospital. This permits the implementation of specialized early intervention services to commence soon after.

Without specialized early intervention services, children who are deaf or hard of hearing generally have been found to experience significant delays in their communication and language abilities, their social-emotional development, and, ultimately, the quality of their lives.

14.8 Life Skills

Professionals should conduct assessments to determine students’ current levels of performance as well as to establish if they need a curriculum that includes an emphasis on life skills instruction (e.g., safety, banking, cooking, and purchasing skil).

Professionals should consider the following factors when planning programs for students who are deaf or hard of hearing: inclusion in general education, paid employment/work experience, self-care/independent living skills, and student support from family members and friends.

In order to proactively meet the needs of students who are deaf or hard of hearing with additional disabilities and those who are not benefiting from a purely academic focus, professionals should gather assessment data and develop an educational plan that takes into consideration the knowledge and skills needed to live independently and to put into place the types of supports that will be needed when these students exit their formal education program.

14.9 Transition

Research findings on the educational and employment outcomes for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing have been mixed.  In the area of employment, some individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing have achieved great success. Professionals with a hearing loss have been represented in almost every line of work. Workers with a hearing loss are more likely to work in nonprofessional jobs (e.g., food processing, printing, welding) and to earn less than the general hearing  labor force.

To prepare students who are deaf or hard of hearing to transition successfully to postsecondary education programs and/or the workforce, professionals should provide them with information about careers and facilitate the development of self-determination and self-advocacy skills.

Many students who are deaf or hard of hearing demonstrate limited knowledge or skills in the areas of independent living (e.g., budgeting, bill paying, contractual agreements, cooking and nutrition, family planning) and employment (e.g., organization, time management, collaboration, planning).

Professionals have to provide instruction in these critical areas during high school and work with vocational rehabilitation (VR) counselors to help individuals with a hearing loss be prepared for adult life. Job placement, provision of assistive technology devices, and job search assistance—are the primary VR services that contribute to clients’ finding and maintaining employment.

We live in a sound-oriented society. Extensive amounts of information are conveyed both deliberately and incidentally through verbal interactions with others.

Through these interactions, children and youth  refine their communication skills,  acquire language,  obtain information about the world—background and domain knowledge, learn concepts,  become literate, develop social skills, and  participate in the daily activities of life.

A hearing loss of any type or degree tends to alter the quality of sound (i.e., softer, distorted, or nonexistent) that travels to the inner ear and brain stem, which then has the potential to change interaction patterns with others and adversely impact development that may lead to language, literacy, social, and academic delays.

Determining and establishing the most appropriate educational environment for each student who is deaf or hard of hearing require a series of difficult decisions such as the following examples:

What services are needed?  Where should the services be provided?  Which professionals will provide the services?  Which primary mode of communication will be used?  Which assistive technologies, like FM system, interpreters, and/or note takers, will be needed?  What should be the focus of the curriculum?  Which adaptations will be beneficial?  How will progress be monitored?

In order to meet the communication, academic, and social needs of these students, students’ progress must be systematically monitored using assessments that compare students’ learning rates and levels of performance to expected benchmarks so that timely adjustments can be made.

14.10 Barriers to successful transition for deaf young people

  • Lack of specialised information: for example, about communication support options at college or support available in employment such as Access to Work.
  • Not looking into the full range of options: often teachers and careers advisers see FE college as the default option for deaf young people.
  • Low expectations: professionals and parents have been found to rule out some career choices and to direct deaf young people to ‘suitable’ courses in which they believe the young person has the best chance of a qualification.
  • Not enough financial resources to explore options fully: transport costs can stop young people from visiting a range of post-16 providers (particularly if they have to travel further to find a suitable provider) and this can be a factor in restricting choice.
  • Lack of appropriate communication and social support at school: this can reduce confidence and lead to social isolation.
Last modified: Wednesday, 9 February 2022, 11:07 AM

Lecture 15:Notes

15.0 Visual Impairment

15.1 Students with Visual Impairments

Students with visual impairments include those who are blind, legally blind, partially sighted, low vision, and cortically visually impaired. A student with a visual impairment is one whose visual acuity is not sufficient for participation with ease in everyday activities.

The impairment interferes with optimal learning and achievement and can result in a substantial educational disadvantage unless adaptations are made in the methods of presenting learning opportunities, the nature of the materials used, and/or the learning environment. A trained professional can be specific about the extent and the effect of the impair- ment.

Students with visual impairments usually have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) and are receiving regular special educational services related to their impairment from a qualified teacher of the visu- ally impaired.

Diagnosis is carried out by an ophthalmologist, optometrist, orthoptist, or the Visually Impaired Program at BC’s Children’s Hospital. To be considered visually impaired, students must meet the following conditions:

  • a visual acuity of 6/21 (20/70) or less in the better eye after correction
  • a visual field of 20 degrees or less
  • any progressive eye disease with a prognosis of becoming one of the above in the next few years
  • a visual problem or related visual stamina that is not correctable and that results in the student functioning as if his or her visual acuity is limited to 6/21 (20/70) or less.

A student with a visual impairment will receive a functional vision assessment conducted by the teacher of the visually impaired in order to identify educational implications of the student’s vision loss. This assessment will be used to plan the educational program, and may also be of direct benefit in the development of career/life transition planning.

In the case of a student with a severe visual impairment, a qualified orientation and mobility instructor should also assess his or her skills in orientation and mobility. Orientation and mobility provides students with the skills necessary to know where they are in the school or community, where they want to go and how to get there in a safe and efficient manner with as much independence as possible.

15.2 Including students in transition planning activities

Students with visual impairments may need to use alternative methods or adaptive skills to successfully complete job tasks. With the appropriate accommodations, students with visual impairments can be successful in the workplace.

Before planning accommodations, first ask the students what accommodations would best meet their needs. The lists presented below include possible strategies to ensure that students with visual impairments have equal access to and full participation in transition planning activities.

Most students with visual impairments require specialized equipment (e.g., Braillers, closed-circuit televisions, cassette recorders, optical aids, speech synthesizers) and adapted learning resources (e.g., Braille texts, enlarged-print books, large-print computer software, tapes).

Academically and socially, many of them appear to be quite successful; however, a substantial minority [of students] is doing less well. The considerable heterogeneity among students classified as “visually impaired” highlights the need for educators to look beyond “the label” and tailor instruction, accommodations, services, and supports to students’ individual needs.

This fairly accurate description of students with visual impairments demonstrates not only the heterogeneity of children identified as visually impaired, but also the great range of educational services required. The term Visual impairment and visually impaired are used here refer to the entire group of students who are blind and have low vision.

15.3 Administration

Important issues around the administration of educational programs serving students with visual impairment focus on credentialed personnel, supervision, workload, and access. students with visual impairments have to be served by licensed or credentialed teachers who have training and experience in visual impairment and who are involved in assessment and writing of IEPs as well as in direct teaching according to the individual child’s needs.

personnel serving students with visual impairments generally do so in an itinerant model in which they travel among several schools within a district or across multiple districts that comprise a region; thus, driving time becomes part of the workday and is one of the considerations in determining caseload size.

Other considerations include student needs for direct instruction in reading and writing Braille, use of technology, classroom instructional materials that require translation into accessible formats, and teacher conferencing time.

15.4 Assessment

Assessment considerations for children and youth with visual impairments are similar to those for students with other sensory disabilities. Personnel with experience and training in visual impairment are required to participate in the assessment process, and assessment must utilize a variety of measures, both formal and informal, to evaluate development, educational achievement, and access to the general curriculum. Such personnel also consider the interaction of residual vision, additional disabilities, environment, learning strategies, and unique skills need.

Personnel experienced and trained in visual impairment conduct at least two types of assessments:

(a) a functional vision assessment to estimate how a student is using his or her remaining vision and to establish the accommodations and modifications, including the use of low vision devices and technology, needed in order for the student to progress in the general education curriculum, and

(b) a learning media assessment to determine the sensory channels through which a child learns and to assess reading and writing skills, specifically evaluating a student’s need for instruction in Braille.

15.5 Assistive Technology

In spite of its potential to facilitate Braille instruction and the development of early Braille literacy skills assistive technology for students with visual impairments has not been widely researched, and the literature is limited to product reports and case studies. Practice guidelines require educators to ensure that technology is available to students with visual impairments.  Assistive technology is an effective method for teaching writing and composition.

Teachers of students with visual impairment are more confident and more likely to teach technology to their students

(a) when they have completed a course in specific technologies for students with visual impairments and

(b) when knowledge and skills in technology are periodically renewed through professional development.

15.6 Communication

General professional agreement supports strategies that assist children who are blind and visually impaired to acquire language skills including  expansion of verbal language and nonverbal cues;

short and simple sentences to follow directions;  questions that engage the child or that clarify the child’s understanding;  use of concrete objects to label and explore; use of songs, nursery rhymes, and chants;  use of rich descriptions and feedback; and  book sharing.

Early Identification and Early Intervention

Children with blindness and low vision have received early intervention services since the 1930s (Ferrell, 2000) primarily because vision loss was believed to create an extreme developmental disadvantage that families could not address on their own. Early intervention services are generally considered mandatory for infants and toddlers with visual impairment.

15.7 Life Skills

Educators of students with visual impairment have long included instruction in life skills as an important component of the services they provide. Instructional services in skills and behavior that lead to adulthood include adaptive and assistive technology, orientation and mobility, leisure and recreation skills, social interaction skills, independent living skills, career education, and visual efficiency.

Since 1996, these educational needs have been known as the expanded core curriculum (Hatlen, 1996). The need for this specialized instruction is attributed to the impact that visual impairment has on learning and the resulting limitation in observation, visual imitation, and demonstration and feedback.

15.8 Orientation and Mobility skills

Provision of orientation and mobility services is influenced by (a) placement—students who attended specialized schools were more likely to receive the services than students in regular schools and (b) severity of visual impairment—students who were blind were more likely to receive the services than those with low vision.

There is professional agreement that orientation and mobility begins in early childhood with sensory skills, concept development, motor development, and environmental awareness practiced in the home and community.  This progresses to formal orientation and mobility training, such as cane travel and street crossings.

15.9 Literacy skills

Literacy is the key to social and economic opportunity. Education of students with visual impairment has always been about providing access to print or finding an alternative modality that will provide an equivalent quality and quantity of information. Working as a team, the teacher of students with visual impairments and the family can support language and concept development while giving attention to sensory input.

Print readers:  For students who are print readers, there is strong evidence that training in and use of low-vision devices increases oral comprehension, oral and silent reading speed, and the amount of total reading accomplished.

Teaching children to use low-vision devices and other technology provides optimal access to print.  Magnifying technology is considered more effective than hard-copy enlarged print for low vision students.  Students who read print have been found to require regular and intensive assessment and intervention from trained and certified personnel in the effective use of functional vision and low-vision devices.

Braille readers: Daily literacy instruction for young Braille readers is essential.  Braille instruction must be systematic, regular, adequate to the child’s needs, and provided by knowledgeable and appropriately trained personnel to give the child who is blind the best opportunity to become a proficient reader.

15.10Transition

Transition, an important topic within the education of students with visual impairments, has not been widely researched. The factors that affect employment for visually impaired persons is early work experiences (e.g.,

finding a job, holding many jobs for longer periods of time) during school to be a prime factor. Transition interventions that directly results in employment include social skills, work experience, and other career development activities as well as independent living skills.  Others include poorer vision, minimal assistive technology use, orientation and mobility skills, and transportation.

Last modified: Wednesday, 9 March 2022, 4:13 PM

Lecture 16:Notes

16.0 Students with Deafblindness

16.1 Introduction

Deafblindness is the smallest disability group and also the most heterogeneous. Children and young adults differ by type and level of hearing and vision loss, age of onset of vision and hearing loss, physical and health issues, cognitive functioning, expressive and receptive communication forms, and educational histories. Like all learners, children who are deafblind are also diverse by  culture, family (including language of the family), community characteristics, and socioeconomic status.

Vision and hearing, which are important senses for learning, reinforce each other. Thus, one cannot understand the impact of deafblindness by adding up the effects of the vision loss and the effects of the hearing loss. The effect of deafblindness is multiplicative, not additive.

Deafblindness may be congenital or adventitious. Many individuals who are congenitally deafblind will struggle to become linguistic, but most individuals who are adventitiously deafblind will be linguistic.

Individuals who are adventitiously deafblind will require extensive supports while learning new communication and literacy forms (e.g., sign language, braille). Deafblindness creates serious challenges not only to access but also to engagement. Little incidental learning occurs due to the loss of distance senses. Touch is an important sense for learning.

16.2 Administration

Each educational team should include a member who is knowledgeable about the impact of deafblindness and also about specialized communication methods and instructional approaches to assist with assessment, instructional planning, and program implementation.

Deafblindness is the lowest incidence disability; thus, most educational professionals receive little if any information about how to instruct children who are deafblind.

It is insufficient to have team members with expertise only in visual impairment or in hard of hearing/deafness because the impact of deafblindness is far greater than one can surmise from adding the effects of vision and hearing loss.

This is because deafblindness involves both distance senses, thus greatly limiting access to others and to information, observation, and incidental learning. Instructional groups must be small enough to allow the child who is deafblind to fully access information, engage in the lesson, and receive feedback.

Even if children have significant residual vision and/or hearing, small groups will support with locating the speaker or communication partner while keeping background sounds and visual clutter to a minimum. Learners who rely primarily on tactual input for learning may require 1:1 instructional arrangements for most of their lessons to support access and engagement as well as to allow for frequent tactual feedback.

16.3 Assessment

The sole use of standardized assessment instruments is inappropriate for children who are deafblind. This is because standardized instruments seldom include children who are deafblind as a norming group.

Additionally, standardized instruments require precise administration procedures that may not allow enough flexibility to accommodate the needs of children who are deafblind during the assessment process. Great caution should be applied while estimating the abilities of children who are deafblind.

16.4 Assistive Technology

Children and youth who are deafblind need assistive technologies, such as alerting devices, to support communication, orientation and mobility, participation in content area instruction, and life skills. The assistive technologies may be low tech, such as a hand-held magnifier, or high tech, such as devices with refreshable braille displays.

The selection of assistive technology and instruction on its use must be grounded in thorough assessment, including learning media assessment, with the goals of enhancing access and engagement across all environments and in all areas of the individualized and general curriculum.

Parents of children who are deafblind may value cochlear implantation outcomes that are unimportant to parents of children who are deaf alone due to the impact of deafblindness, such as isolation and reduced environmental feedback.

These parents have provided strong evidence for improvements in attention; interactions with objects; listening, which may break down isolation and enhance engagement; responsiveness, increased awareness of environmental sounds, which may improve safety; and increased vocalizations.

16.5 Communication

Communication is one of the more developed areas of research in the field of deafblindness. Highly individualized educational interventions to address the development of communication skills should be  embedded into every activity,  provided in the context of natural environments, and  complemented with ample opportunities for social interaction.

16.7 Early Identification and Early Intervention

The provision of newborn hearing screening supports early identification of hearing loss and subsequent referral for early intervention services.

Preparing educators of children who are deaf or hard of hearing to recognize signs of possible vision loss, including signs of typical and atypical visual behaviors, becomes one of the strongest mechanisms for identifying deafblindness.   Early intervention is critical to reducing the profound developmental disadvantages faced by children who are deafblind.

Infants and young children who are deafblind are less responsive to caregivers, exhibit fewer initiations to interact, have few opportunities to learn incidentally due to reduced input from both distance senses, and struggle to develop early concepts.

The complex and heterogeneous needs of children who are deafblind call for highly specialized and individualized services provided by collaborative teams that recognize the critical role of the family in creating optimal outcomes for the children.

Caregivers benefit from preparation in recognizing the child’s cues for interaction, resulting in higher levels of adult responsiveness. They also benefit from learning to establish sequenced routines that elicit anticipation in the child and opportunities for adults to respond contingently.

Intervener services in the home have been found to accelerate the child’s development beyond what would be expected due to typical maturation across multiple areas of development, including a marked increase in the frequency and complexity of communication and an associated reduction in the frequency of self-stimulatory behaviours.

16.8 Life Skills

There is strong evidence that systematic instruction that is grounded in behavioral principles has been effectively applied to improve daily living skills in children and youth who are deafblind. The achievement of life skills by children who are deafblind is in the area of orientation and mobility.

Systematic instruction, especially in the context of desirable and functional activities, results in positive learning outcomes.

Orientation and mobility instruction for students who are deafblind must be modified to reflect the impact of deafblindness, potential balance issues, and unique and complex communication needs.

Many individuals who are deafblind will not have sufficient hearing to access the speech. Thus, they may require the services of a sign language interpreter who may communicate in either visual or tactual sign language.

The use of an interpreter will lengthen each lesson because travel and communication will need to occur sequentially. Youth who are deafblind also require specialized instruction for interacting with the public.

Instructor for orientation and mobility services need to modify the orientation and mobility curriculum, instructional techniques, and the selection of devices for children and youth who are deafblind.

For example, street-crossing techniques used with individuals who are deafblind are significantly different from street-crossing techniques used of those who are visually impaired. Devices that convert sounds to vibro-tactile output may be incorporated into travel.

Children who are deafblind have fewer opportunities to engage in physical activity. Due to the need to communicate in close physical proximity, most individuals who are deafblind cannot simultaneously communicate while engaging in physical activity.

Thus, adults who support participation in physical education and in leisure and recreation activities will need to carefully sequence these activities with breaks for communication as part of instruction.

16.9 Literacy

The traditional view of literacy as reading and writing has been challenged in recent years because it excludes learners who are prelinguistic. A new more inclusive view of literacy includes all learners and recognizes that the materials and media of literacy differ across learners. Literacy that is experienced through technology, such as speech-generating devices, is often called the new literacy.

Devices for Literacy Development

Contemporary definitions of literacy view communication as supportive or part of literacy. Daily schedules, story boxes, experience books, choice-making opportunities, and interactive home-school journals are among the literacy lessons of importance to prelinguistic learners who are deafblind.

Daily schedules:  Also known as anticipation shelves or calendar systems, daily schedules are important to learning one’s routine, representations for activities within the routine, and left-toright sequencing. Each trip to the daily schedule provides an opportunity for a conversation.

Story boxes:  These are collections of objects that relate to an experience or a book. While reading a story, the teacher may stop and allow time for the child to handle the objects, name the objects, or use the objects to respond to questions about the text.

Experience books:  Known also as memory books, experience books are about the child’s personal experiences, grounded in the child’s perspective, and physically co-constructed with the child. For example, the child and teacher may gather items from the park and then co-construct a book about that experience, attaching one object to each page and then labeling what it represents in print (for consistent reading by adults) and perhaps in braille. While reading experience books, it is important to allow ample time for conversation to occur about each page.

Choice-making opportunities:  Making choices is an important aspect of literacy development. Authentic choice making only occurs if the child understands the representations, understands the choice-making process, and has true preferences from among the options displayed.

Home-school journal: The home-school interactive journal replaces the typical notes shared between parents and school staff. Each journal may be only a few pages long with each page representing an important activity experienced by the child that day. This lesson builds memory and distancing, which are important to symbolic development.

All learners benefit from a literacy-rich environment. This may include, among other materials, books in print, braille, and auditory formats; tactile books,abels, interactive software paired with ample opportunities to communicate, and commercially produced books with appropriate tactile adaptations.

Learners who are deafblind require ample hands-on experiences to ensure that they understand the concepts expressed in books. This is because they have few, if any, opportunities to gain information incidentally by listening or observing.

Transition

An interagency approach to personal-futures planning (PFP), a type of person-centered planning, is critical (a) to capturing the transition strengths and needs of each individual who is deafblind and

(b) to planning natural and paid supports for all aspects of adult living. PFP involves the creation of maps by a team of concerned individuals and the young adult who is deafblind.  A PFP facilitator supports all team members to contribute.

PFP maps may be about vocational options, residential options, community involvement, and friendships, among other relevant topics for adulthood. One of the purposes of PFP is to engage in team problem solving to resolve physical and social barriers to participation across adult settings.

Children who are deafblind are more likely to gain employment after high school if provided with vocational experiences that are part of education programming.

Last modified: Wednesday, 9 March 2022, 4:16 PM

Lecture 17:Notes

17.0 Guidance and Transition to Employment of persons with disabilities

17.1 Introduction

The focus in this topic is how to create awareness to employers toward employing persons with disabilities. Employers are important individuals in creating economic wellbeing of individuals. In this case, the learner, in this course will be made aware of the ways in which employers can be motivated to enroll individuals with special needs.  The focus will also be in the role of guidance in transition process.

The learner will be made aware of the guidance and its importance in transition process. The learner is expected to develop skills in determining processes during transition for individuals with special needs.

17.2 Guidance

Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding one‘s strengths, limitations, and other resources) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on one‘s own).

Guidance is based upon the following principles:

(i)          Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total development of personality.

(ii)          Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides uniqueness to each person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The dignity of the individual is supreme.

(iii)        Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity.

(iv)       The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early childhood throughout adulthood.

(v)         Guidance involves using skills to communicate love, regard, respect for others.

Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and importance of guidance are as follows.

  • Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in understanding one‘s strength, limitations and other resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to solve problems and take decisions.
  • Optimum development of individual
  • Solving different problem of the individual
  • Academic growth and development
  • Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments
  • Social personal adjustment
  • Better family life
  • Good citizenship
  • For conservation and proper utilization of human resources
  • For national development

Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents, administrators, planners and community members.

The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance programme being the maximum development of the child, all guidance programmes must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing themselves their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other fields.

The need for guidance and counseling can be summarize as

  • To help is the total development of the students.
  • To arise students in leading a healthy life by abstaining from whatever is deterious to health.
  • To help the proper selection of educational programme.
  • To select career according to their interest and abilities.
  • To help students in vocational development.
  • To develop readiness for change and to face challenges.
  • To help freshers to establish proper written.
  • To identify and motivate students of the weaker society.
  • To help the students to overcome the period of turmoil and confusions.
  • Ensure proper utilization of time –spend outside the class.
  • To help in tackling problems arising out of student exploration and co-education.
  • To minimize the indiscipline.
  • To motivate youth for self employment.

17.3 School Counselor’s Roles for Transition

School counselors provide counseling for all students, and this can include transition planning for students with disabilities. Careful organization and planning might help to avoid a major pitfall: developing a transition plan but failing to implement it. As part of the transition planning process, school counselors may have many roles:

  • Conveying information about career and personal competencies
  • Identifying the post-school opportunities and services to which students may have access
  • Supporting students to help them transition from high school to life after high school
  • Working with students to develop their measurable post-secondary goals
  • Helping the IEP team to develop measurable post-secondary goals and the transition services needed to achieve those goals
  • Conducting assessments across all life domains
  • Identifying the best curricular options and developing a course of study
  • Guiding transition activities (e.g., connecting to service agencies)
  • Monitoring progress on the transition plan
Last modified: Wednesday, 9 February 2022, 12:27 PM

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