Inclusive Education
Lecture notes
17.2 Collaboration Models
In the supportive teaching model, the general education teacher is responsible for the content of the material and the special education teacher decides how to adapt that material for the students ability. They work together on presentation, follow-up, and lecture.
The co-teaching or team-teaching model incorporates shared planning, instruction, and monitoring of performance and evaluation. In this model regular and special education teachers are equal in the classroom. The final strategy is the complementary model.
The special educator has the responsibility of intertwining different techniques and strategies into the general education curriculum. The special educator handles the majority of instruction for the student.
With any instructional model it is important to remember that students will need constant monitoring. Students who are placed in a general education setting need to be monitored constantly and closely to ensure that the instruction is effective and continues to meet their needs.
Responsibility for evaluation should be shared among the team members, with the general educator and the special education teacher consultant taking primary responsibility for this task. Student evaluation data should be gathered by direct observation of students in the inclusive setting as well as by review of the student’s work and tests (Wood, 1998 p128).
Teacher’s general attitudes and feelings are easily comprehended by the students in their classroom. It is very important for the classroom teacher to view the disabled student as a regular member of the class. Make the student feel comfortable in his or her surroundings.
Remember that everybody wants to feel welcomed. Teachers must do what is in their power to make the environment safe for the student. Teachers also have to keep in mind that modification of teaching techniques may be a daily event.
Until a successful strategy is found, teachers must continue to search for the strategy that helps the student grasp the meaning of the material. It will be necessary to make adaptations to the curriculum, it is essential that the teacher is flexible and open to new ideas and suggestions.
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The most important advice for teachers is to seek out and use the expertise of others. The collaborative strategy is based on this belief, and it has proven to be successful (Wood, 1998).
Evidence suggests that diversity in teamwork promotes innovation, which has multiple positive effects, such as a higher level of creativity in problem solving (Voutsas, 2011).
“Through collaboration, ideas can be shared, new and better strategies can be developed, problems can be solved, students’ progresses can be better monitored, and their outcomes are evaluated effectively.
Collaboration should be seen as a tool for achieving users’ objectives. This is, however, impossible if managers and personnel do not have a clear understanding of the factors that impede or promote collaboration, and if the professionals involved lack motivation,
mutual trust and common interests. Collaborative, inter-professional cooperation can be defined as “a process which includes communication and decision-making, enabling a synergistic influence of grouped knowledge and skills. (Bridges et al., 2011, p.2).
The same group of authors point out the following elements of collaborative practice:
(2) accountability,
(3) coordination,
(4) communication,
(5) cooperation,
(6) assertiveness,
(7) autonomy and
This means that true collaboration is demonstrated only in teams in which the goal is clearly established, decision making is shared, and all of the members feel that they are respected and that their contributions are valued.
Collaborative problem solving to promote inclusive education is typically carried out between teachers and other support professionals who get together to solve specific problems, usually concerning a student or group of students, focusing on classroom-based interventions increases the students’ chances for success.
Assistance might involve interactions between classroom teachers and speech and language specialists, school psychologists, specialists in visual and auditory impairment, special education specialists, or other professionals (pedagogues, social pedagogues, etc.). Effective educational programming in an inclusive setting requires intensive and ongoing collaboration of all members of a student’s educational team.
There is movement away from the traditional multi-disciplinary model, where experts work independently (and usually on a “pull-out” basis) on assessment, development of separate goals, and instruction related to their particular area of expertise, meeting occasionally to report progress to the team.
17.3 Advantages of the team approach
Many professionals believe that the transdisciplinary teaming model, with integrated special services occurring during the regular program in the regular classroom, is the most effective way of delivering instruction.
In this model, everyone works collaboratively on the same goals, sharing responsibility for assessment, planning, sharing of information, problem solving, and decision-making. Experts in each area are responsible for reporting and monitoring progress in goals most related to their area of specialization, as well as “role release”, or training of other team members in the best practices of their specialized area as they apply to an individual student.
Inclusion in the regular classroom provides a continuity of curriculum for the student, with fewer interruptions in the day. The student can readily compare his or her skill level and achievement to that of his or her peers. Instruction in compensatory skills, such as the use of adaptations or assistive technology, is more effective and generalized when taught within the regular curriculum, in regular classroom activities.
In addition, when a student attends his or her neighborhood school, he or she is more likely to be a part of the greater community, participating in community activities where functional application of skills will take place.
When a student is enrolled in mainstream classes, both special and general educators have increased opportunities to observe academic and social progress in order to make valid comparisons with peers,
ensuring that the student’s development is age- and ability-appropriate, It is the ideal way to determine if the student is using time and assistive devices appropriately, and whether he or she is using effective note taking strategies. There is the opportunity for teachers to combine expertise in order to teach more effectively.
Inclusion eliminates the problem of quality (or perceived quality) of mathematics instruction from a special education teacher, and reduces the issues created when a mathematics teacher is not versed in accommodations and adaptations for blind students.
At the elementary level, inclusion also eliminates the inconvenience, to the classroom teacher, of having to send the student out of the classroom for mathematics instruction at important times of the day. This is particularly important when the schedule changes and the student misses a different class activity in order to receive mathematics instruction.
17.4 Implementation of the team approach
Implementation of the transdisciplinary teaming model requires training in collaboration and team teaching techniques. Regularly scheduled, frequent (at least weekly) time for planning and reviewing progress, airing problems, and discussing different approaches and instructional strategies is essential.
There is a need to teach strategically, providing support groups or individualized additional instruction for students who need more time to practice facts, or who could benefit from enrichment or an extension of the curriculum.
Meeting individual needs for methods or materials based on their particular learning style and/or strengths will help students build successful experiences in mathematics, and improve their confidence in mathematics-related skills.
In the ideal teaming situation, teachers share in planning, presenting lessons, and checking assignments. It is vital that students (as well as teachers) view classroom and special educators as teachers, rather than one as a teacher, the other as a helper. Professionals share personal and professional strengths, and appreciation for each other’s expertise.
Both teachers assume responsibility for instruction and for all students, including sharing success and frustrations, planning, evaluating, and problem solving. The teachers move back and forth between direct and indirect support.
This system helps improve instruction by working collaboratively with strengths, joint efforts to solve problems, generation of creative methods, reduction of professional isolation, increased understanding of roles of different professionals, and a reduction of the stigma of special education (Pugach & Johnson, 1995).
Mathematics teachers are the specialists in mathematics, particularly in middle school and high school. Once a student masters basic concepts, including the Nemeth Code, then the mathematics teacher should teach mathematics, while the teacher of visually impaired students is responsible for teaching any new code information, and transcribing materials into braille, raised line drawings, and tactile graphics. Each uses his or her particular expertise, working closely together to facilitate learning.
In high school, while co-planning and teaching may be impractical, it is vital that the special educator facilitate an ongoing system for communication with the mathematics specialist.
This may take the form of memos, telephone contact, regularly scheduled tutoring sessions, or perhaps assistance from the teacher of visually impaired students in the administration and evaluation of tests.
17.5 Strategies for team teaching
Cooperation between grade level classroom teachers and special education personnel, including paraprofessionals, is necessary for inclusion in mathematics to succeed. Small homogenous groups for instruction in at least part of a lesson enable the teachers to adjust content according to ability levels while implementing modifications or adaptations.
A small group also enhances student involvement and immediate feedback from the teacher. Large, heterogeneous groups are usually effective for introducing a new concept or skill. Grouping decisions should always be viewed as temporary (dynamic, or contingent, or flexible grouping), depending on the nature of the lesson and individual needs of the students.
There are a variety of effective methods for co-teaching. Different strategies should be used for different circumstances, depending on which would be most effective for a particular lesson. Some of the possibilities include:
- Teachers each take half the class and teach a concept or skill to mastery.
- One teacher provides guided practice, for the entire class, in a concept previously taught but not mastered, while the second teacher moves around the room providing individual assistance and monitoring individual performance.
- The teacher of visually impaired students works with an individual student, using adaptive techniques and materials during the regular lesson.
- One teacher demonstrates alternative teaching techniques for the other teacher.
- The teacher of visually impaired students provides related enrichment lessons or units.
- The teacher of visually impaired students assumes total responsibility for a sub-group within the class.
- The teacher of visually impaired students provides instruction for all students in the use of peer tutors and partner learning techniques.
- The teacher of visually impaired students serves as tutor for groups of children having difficulty with a particular concept or skill.
- The teacher of visually impaired students can be responsible for a mathematics learning center in a primary level classroom.
- Both teachers assume responsibility for modification of the curriculum or assignments, if necessary, including quantity, simplification of format or instructions, or assessment procedures.
- Both teachers are involved in the development of the IEP.
- Both teachers participate in conferences with parents.
- Institute a mathematics “problem of the day,” developed and graded by the teacher of visually impaired students. This will help both teachers to track the progress and skills of individual students relative to the rest of the class.
- To encourage the development of skills in self-advocacy, the teacher of students with visual impairments can periodically develop a poorly-planned lesson, present it to the student, and role-play potential strategies for soliciting appropriate information or assistance.
- In secondary level mathematics classes, teaching assistants can be trained in a protocol for spoken mathematics and to make “on-the-spot” tactile diagrams.
- In some school districts, a school mathematics teacher is assigned to a resource room for students with visual impairments for one period each day. The mathematics teacher provides individualized instruction in any of the mathematics courses in which the resource students are enrolled, while the teacher of visually impaired students provides adaptations.
- Enlist the assistance of the Orientation and Mobility Specialist to reinforce mathematics concepts in “real life” situations.
17.6 Activities for teaching in an inclusive setting
Previous research on the collaboration between class teachers and remedial teachers/special educators has largely focused on Co-Teaching. Co-Teaching describes various models of collaboration such as:
- One teach, one observe; one teacher leads the instruction and the other teacher observes the pupils,
- Station Teaching; where the pupils work on three stations, two teachers are responsible for one station each and the third station has the pupils working on their own in a group,
- Parallel Teaching; where the class is divided into two halves and two teachers teach at the same time,
- Alternative Teaching, where one teacher works with a larger group of pupils and the other teacher works with a smaller group who either require special assistance or greater challenges,
- Teaming; where two teachers teach together on equal terms, and
- One teach, one assist; teaching with one teacher and one assistant teacher where the teacher leads the instruction and the assistant teacher circulates in the classroom and helps the pupils who need it (Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain & Shamberger, 2010).
Last modified: Thursday, 29 March 2018, 12:03 PM
Lecture notes
22.1 Introduction
The student teacher will exposed to discussion on barriers to inclusive education. issues that include: Diversity and Inclusive Education Philosophy; Knowledge and skills; Accountability Mechanisms; Professional Support; Collaboration, planning and preparations; Physical learning environment; Curriculum design; Paraprofessional support systems; Transition strategies; and Community support systems
22.2 Core elements of Inclusive Education
Ten elements that seem to be essential to successful inclusive education can be identified from the good practices. They are arranged in the categories of culture, practical elements and policy elements.
Culture
- Celebrating diversity; a vision that all humans are different and that difference in itself is valuable, that support, development and growth arefundamental for the entire school and all people involved. It means not promoting inclusive education to give a disabled child an opportunity, but it means putting diversity central in everything the school does: in its admission policy, in how classes are managed, in the way of looking at what level learners can achieve, how teachers work together, teaching methods, what the school building and classrooms look like, if they are accessible, if children are taken out of the classroom for extra support and how the school collaborates with the community.
1. School as community and school in the community; schools and classrooms are not seen as learning factories, but as a community in which people learn from each other and in that way become socially responsible adults who can contribute to welcoming and inclusive communities. Everyone, including parents, staff, students, neighbourhood, etc., plays a role in this process. All kinds of situations are learning situations.
- High expectations of all learners is central; education is about dedication, performance and social behaviour. Every student is challenged to develop to her or his optimum.
- The child as an individual is at the center; it was stated in many examples that inclusive education requires letting go of classical teaching methods and changing to the workshop model with possibilities for differentiation. The central question of Universal Design for Learning, UDL, is ‘how can we support a student to be successful?’ And to develop lessons, material and the teaching in ways to achieve that success.
Practice
- Class management/Co-teaching; in inclusive education you often seen a duo of teachers who work, plan and decide together. This duo is often made up of a formerly mainstream and a special needs teacher and works together for the whole group. Where necessary, support by classroom assistants and other experts is added to optimize learning strategies for the whole group. Children are rarely taken out of the classroom for one-to-one support, because it is felt that one-to-one support increases the dependency of the student. 1.Peer-to-peer assistance; children learn more from their age-related peers than from ‘fellow-sufferers’.
Policy
- Leadership; the school-management advises and stimulates the process of inclusive education. In several schools leadership is regarded as important to the entire team and school, including the children. Everyone works together towards the same goals and has her/his own role and task. 1Differentiated curriculum; within the limits of the curriculum, the freedom of methods that can be used allows space for teachers’ expertise to develop individual learning routes for children. The high expectations which are anchored in the curriculum remain central, but the path to get there can differ per individual. 1.Supporting policy from neighbourhood, state or government; this is necessary for the process of inclusive education to succeed. Here schools often find the extra means to realize inclusive education. 1.Collaboration between all involved; parents are also team members, all parties need each other: teachers (peer support), parents, experts, students, management and support staff. What is striking is that in inclusive schools the class does not belong to the teacher and the student to the class; the student belongs to the whole school. Everyone feels the responsibility for the success of all children. Cooperation is crucial, above all to inform each other about what works best, to support each other and to involve the knowledge and expertise of parents, for example.
22.3 Practices outside the classroom
In this section learners are made aware of ableism and inclusion. It cannot be underestimated that out of classroom practices are important in creating abilities in social networking and the social life skills that cannot be taught in the classroom. In this case how individual learners are made aware of the challenges and how out of class activities are likely to be shaped in such a way that they support learning.
Learning does not end at the classroom. There is a positive correlation between out of classroom contact and students achievement in intellectual, critical thinking, cultural, communication, and attitudes to learning and increased completion rates.
The role of practices outside the classroom cannot be over emphasized; practices outside the classroom enhance learning of second language. In this case, where children with disabilities have minimal interactions with their peers it is likely that they face difficulties in learning.
A well planned out of classroom program is likely to support learners in developing personal, social and emotional development of the individual learner. In participating in out of school activities children get chance to transfer from what they learnt in the classroom to real life situation. It cannot be questioned that much of interactions is done outside the classroom.
In the classroom there are procedures to follow, time to cover content, changing activities and in some context changing teachers from time to time. When outside the classroom children communicate and get time to develop social networking that might support in raising school achievement.
Most of the researchers are concerned with classroom practices. Quality of learning depends on both the in and outside classroom activities. It is common for teachers to provide assignments for children to do. In some cases, teachers provide project work for children to work on.
Such activities cannot be done in the classroom. The outside classroom activities are exciting, practical, motivating, refreshing and fun. Children choose activities that are of interest and can change from time to time. Such flexibility is not found inside the classroom, where teachers control all activities.
The challenge is that are teachers trained in creating practices outside the classroom for learners with disabilities? Children with disabilities had fewer activities. They did not participate in out of classroom activities that included participation in games and sports, and gardening. This was more common in integrated schools.
This can be related to a number of issues, for example what does the policy say about outside the classroom activities? Where do the teachers come in when learners with disabilities are out of the classroom? Is it mandated that inclusion of children with disabilities is in classroom activities where the given curriculum is implemented?
Though it is said that teachers teaching children with visual impairment are challenged with curriculum modification and classroom management, there is a need to plan on how best teachers could be involved in managing outdoor activities for learners with visual impairment. This calls for professional development strategies that empower teachers in understanding their context.
This is necessary as the contexts vary and that children needs are different. It cannot be overemphasized the inadequate supply of learning resources, equipment, and deployment of teachers with knowledge in special needs education.
22.4 Inclusive education practices in Tanzania
In this topic learners will be exposed to inclusive education practices in Tanzania. Drawing examples of inclusive education in Tanzania will lead to understanding practices of implementing inclusive education in developing countries. Learners will be exposed to inclusive education trajectory in Tanzania, enablers and hinderers of implementation of inclusive education, suggested way forward and the type of disability that seem to be more included that the others.
The international inclusive education movement reached Tanzania in the late 1990´s. The starting point was the Salamanca Declaration on Inclusive Education that calls for government and organizations to provide education for children, youth and adults with special educational needs within the regular education system (UNESCO, 1994).
Inclusive education, therefore, is a placement where children with special needs are included in regular schools and taught by regular teachers. The Salamanca Declaration affirms that every child has a fundamental right to education and must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning.
According to the declaration, inclusive education is an effective means to combat discriminatory attitudes and hence increases the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system. Placing children with disabilities in a regular class coupled with the use of child-centered pedagogy has the capability of meeting the needs of all children.
Individuals with and without special needs have the right to equally enjoy all aspects of life, including a right to education. Therefore, teachers need some form of training in order to cater for the needs of children with visual impairment included in their classes.
As inclusive education is to be practiced in all schools, it is not possible to re-train all the teachers by sending them to teacher colleges. This calls for teachers to increase their chances of learning through flexible means such as in-service training and professional development programs.
In Tanzania, inclusive education started in a pilot project in Temeke District in Dar es Salaam in 1997. Seven schools participated in the pilot project, which then spread to other districts. By 2008 about 208 primary schools in the country were implementing inclusive education.
In increasing schools practicing inclusive education in Tanzania UNESCO organized training for a national facilitation team comprising 12 members. The facilitation team used a so-called ‘Special Needs in the Classroom Resource Pack’ (UNESCO, 1993). Later in the project each of the participating schools had two project classes supported by the national team.
The project classes under the UNESCO project were required to have only 35 children, of which 5 were children identified to have disabilities. After the training of the national facilitators70 school teachers were trained in effective teaching through a school-based approach. The UNESCO funding ended in 1999, but MoEVT and Temeke Municipality continued supporting the inclusive school project .
However, the UNESCO project implementation was not evaluated to determine the project achievements, challenges and lessons learnt. In reality, the project had little impact.
Development of inclusive education was a result of partnerships with non-government agencies, government and other donors, both at national and international level.
The partnerships formed contributed to awareness-creating among teachers, parents, educational administrators and school inspectors through short courses and seminars. These initiatives were thought to promote the implementation of inclusive education.
This succeeded only to a certain extent. With the initiation and implementation of inclusive education a number of children with disabilities have been included in regular classes in Tanzania. However, the numbers have remained rather small.
The population data on disability is not available, but the total number of children with disabilities enrolled in schools in 2012 was 28,195 pupils. Primary school age in Tanzania is estimated to be 7-13 years.
Estimating from the population data in the national census of 2012 in Tanzania indicates that there are 8,584,317 children aged 7-13 years and using the national prevalence rate of 7.8% the estimate of children with disabilities amounts to 669,577, of which only 28,195 (4.2%) are enrolled in schools.
Children with visual impairment aged 7–13 years are estimated to be 458,712, of which only 2,878 (0.9%) are in school (BEST, 2012). The small percentages indicate that few children with disabilities get the opportunity to be enrolled in schools.
In the light of these strategies, where regular classes are supposed to include children with disabilities and regular teachers are supposed to teach all children, teachers need support in understanding how to support learners with disabilities.
Since education has the power to enhance the quality of life for individuals, there is a need to find ways of improving teaching and learning in classes which include different kinds of pupils so that each child gets the knowledge and skills needed to improve their quality of life.
Participation for all children in any educational system requires all children to access and complete the education cycle. Both developed and developing nations aim at including all children in accessing learning opportunities to improve their quality of life.
No children should be denied enrolment, attainment and completion of the basic education cycle for any reason such as disability, poverty, disease and any other special need that might be a barrier to basic education.
For all children to access education the focus is on teachers. Teachers are the facilitators of learning among children. However, diversity in education has not been considered important in regular teacher preparation programs. This is also the case in Tanzania: teacher education has put very little emphasis on special needs education.
The challenges in inclusive education focus on the principle contributors to primary education effectiveness such as curriculum, learning materials, instructional time, classroom teaching, students’ learning capacity, school facilities, teacher training and management . The question is how these important factors can be implemented in inclusive classes in regular schools.
In Tanzania, as in other developing countries, where economies of scales are low, there are many other factors besides teacher factors which make the implementation of inclusive education challenging. However, if teachers are not well-prepared it is not easy for teachers to make the curriculum accessible for learners with disabilities.
In order to promote inclusive education, inclusive education knowledge and skills need to be cultivated and nurtured within school settings. To nurture inclusive education qualified teachers are a key to success. The success of inclusive education largely depends on teacher attitudes, willingness, knowledge and skills to involve children with disabilities in their teaching.
Qualified special education teachers are also needed, but as the number of special education teachers is low in relation to regular teachers in Tanzania, the main focus should be on improving the quality and content knowledge of regular teacher education using different ways, including school-based teacher professional development and engagement of teachers in implementing action research projects.
In Tanzania inclusive education is being implemented. Regular schools are increasingly enrolling children with different types of disabilities.
The proportion of children with disabilities in schools is increasing as regular schools are enrolling children with disabilities, resulting in a multitude of challenges on how teacher education be structured and or restructured to respond to the urgent need of teachers to teach children with disabilities enrolled in regular schools.
In the next section I will describe teacher education in Tanzania with a view to making the reader aware of the need to further develop strategies to support teachers in implementing inclusive education.
Last modified: Thursday, 29 March 2018, 2:36 PM